Provided by: systemd-container_249.11-0ubuntu3.17_amd64

NAME

systemd-nspawn - Spawn a command or OS in a light-weight container

SYNOPSIS

systemd-nspawn [OPTIONS...] [COMMAND [ARGS...]]

systemd-nspawn --boot [OPTIONS...] [ARGS...]

DESCRIPTION

systemd-nspawn may be used to run a command or OS in a light-weight namespace container. In many ways it
is similar to chroot(1), but more powerful since it fully virtualizes the file system hierarchy, as well
as the process tree, the various IPC subsystems and the host and domain name.

systemd-nspawn may be invoked on any directory tree containing an operating system tree, using the
--directory= command line option. By using the --machine= option an OS tree is automatically searched for
in a couple of locations, most importantly in /var/lib/machines/, the suggested directory to place OS
container images installed on the system.

In contrast to chroot(1) systemd-nspawn may be used to boot full Linux-based operating systems in a
container.

systemd-nspawn limits access to various kernel interfaces in the container to read-only, such as /sys/,
/proc/sys/ or /sys/fs/selinux/. The host's network interfaces and the system clock may not be changed
from within the container. Device nodes may not be created. The host system cannot be rebooted and kernel
modules may not be loaded from within the container.

Use a tool like dnf(8), debootstrap(8), or pacman(8) to set up an OS directory tree suitable as file
system hierarchy for systemd-nspawn containers. See the Examples section below for details on suitable
invocation of these commands.

As a safety check systemd-nspawn will verify the existence of /usr/lib/os-release or /etc/os-release in
the container tree before starting the container (see os-release(5)). It might be necessary to add this
file to the container tree manually if the OS of the container is too old to contain this file
out-of-the-box.

systemd-nspawn may be invoked directly from the interactive command line or run as system service in the
background. In this mode each container instance runs as its own service instance; a default template
unit file systemd-nspawn@.service is provided to make this easy, taking the container name as instance
identifier. Note that different default options apply when systemd-nspawn is invoked by the template unit
file than interactively on the command line. Most importantly the template unit file makes use of the
--boot which is not the default in case systemd-nspawn is invoked from the interactive command line.
Further differences with the defaults are documented along with the various supported options below.

The machinectl(1) tool may be used to execute a number of operations on containers. In particular it
provides easy-to-use commands to run containers as system services using the systemd-nspawn@.service
template unit file.

Along with each container a settings file with the .nspawn suffix may exist, containing additional
settings to apply when running the container. See systemd.nspawn(5) for details. Settings files override
the default options used by the systemd-nspawn@.service template unit file, making it usually unnecessary
to alter this template file directly.

Note that systemd-nspawn will mount file systems private to the container to /dev/, /run/ and similar.
These will not be visible outside of the container, and their contents will be lost when the container
exits.

Note that running two systemd-nspawn containers from the same directory tree will not make processes in
them see each other. The PID namespace separation of the two containers is complete and the containers
will share very few runtime objects except for the underlying file system. Use machinectl(1)'s login or
shell commands to request an additional login session in a running container.

systemd-nspawn implements the Container Interface[1] specification.

While running, containers invoked with systemd-nspawn are registered with the systemd-machined(8) service
that keeps track of running containers, and provides programming interfaces to interact with them.

OPTIONS

If option -b is specified, the arguments are used as arguments for the init program. Otherwise, COMMAND
specifies the program to launch in the container, and the remaining arguments are used as arguments for
this program. If --boot is not used and no arguments are specified, a shell is launched in the container.

The following options are understood:

-q, --quiet
Turns off any status output by the tool itself. When this switch is used, the only output from nspawn
will be the console output of the container OS itself.

--settings=MODE
Controls whether systemd-nspawn shall search for and use additional per-container settings from
.nspawn files. Takes a boolean or the special values override or trusted.

If enabled (the default), a settings file named after the machine (as specified with the --machine=
setting, or derived from the directory or image file name) with the suffix .nspawn is searched in
/etc/systemd/nspawn/ and /run/systemd/nspawn/. If it is found there, its settings are read and used.
If it is not found there, it is subsequently searched in the same directory as the image file or in
the immediate parent of the root directory of the container. In this case, if the file is found, its
settings will be also read and used, but potentially unsafe settings are ignored. Note that in both
these cases, settings on the command line take precedence over the corresponding settings from loaded
.nspawn files, if both are specified. Unsafe settings are considered all settings that elevate the
container's privileges or grant access to additional resources such as files or directories of the
host. For details about the format and contents of .nspawn files, consult systemd.nspawn(5).

If this option is set to override, the file is searched, read and used the same way, however, the
order of precedence is reversed: settings read from the .nspawn file will take precedence over the
corresponding command line options, if both are specified.

If this option is set to trusted, the file is searched, read and used the same way, but regardless of
being found in /etc/systemd/nspawn/, /run/systemd/nspawn/ or next to the image file or container root
directory, all settings will take effect, however, command line arguments still take precedence over
corresponding settings.

If disabled, no .nspawn file is read and no settings except the ones on the command line are in
effect.

Image Options
-D, --directory=
Directory to use as file system root for the container.

If neither --directory=, nor --image= is specified the directory is determined by searching for a
directory named the same as the machine name specified with --machine=. See machinectl(1) section
"Files and Directories" for the precise search path.

If neither --directory=, --image=, nor --machine= are specified, the current directory will be used.
May not be specified together with --image=.

--template=
Directory or "btrfs" subvolume to use as template for the container's root directory. If this is
specified and the container's root directory (as configured by --directory=) does not yet exist it is
created as "btrfs" snapshot (if supported) or plain directory (otherwise) and populated from this
template tree. Ideally, the specified template path refers to the root of a "btrfs" subvolume, in
which case a simple copy-on-write snapshot is taken, and populating the root directory is instant. If
the specified template path does not refer to the root of a "btrfs" subvolume (or not even to a
"btrfs" file system at all), the tree is copied (though possibly in a 'reflink' copy-on-write scheme
— if the file system supports that), which can be substantially more time-consuming. Note that the
snapshot taken is of the specified directory or subvolume, including all subdirectories and
subvolumes below it, but excluding any sub-mounts. May not be specified together with --image= or
--ephemeral.

Note that this switch leaves hostname, machine ID and all other settings that could identify the
instance unmodified.

-x, --ephemeral
If specified, the container is run with a temporary snapshot of its file system that is removed
immediately when the container terminates. May not be specified together with --template=.

Note that this switch leaves hostname, machine ID and all other settings that could identify the
instance unmodified. Please note that — as with --template= — taking the temporary snapshot is more
efficient on file systems that support subvolume snapshots or 'reflinks' natively ("btrfs" or new
"xfs") than on more traditional file systems that do not ("ext4"). Note that the snapshot taken is of
the specified directory or subvolume, including all subdirectories and subvolumes below it, but
excluding any sub-mounts.

With this option no modifications of the container image are retained. Use --volatile= (described
below) for other mechanisms to restrict persistency of container images during runtime.

-i, --image=
Disk image to mount the root directory for the container from. Takes a path to a regular file or to a
block device node. The file or block device must contain either:

•   An MBR partition table with a single partition of type 0x83 that is marked bootable.

•   A GUID partition table (GPT) with a single partition of type
0fc63daf-8483-4772-8e79-3d69d8477de4.

•   A GUID partition table (GPT) with a marked root partition which is mounted as the root directory
of the container. Optionally, GPT images may contain a home and/or a server data partition which
are mounted to the appropriate places in the container. All these partitions must be identified
by the partition types defined by the Discoverable Partitions Specification[2].

•   No partition table, and a single file system spanning the whole image.

On GPT images, if an EFI System Partition (ESP) is discovered, it is automatically mounted to /efi
(or /boot as fallback) in case a directory by this name exists and is empty.

Partitions encrypted with LUKS are automatically decrypted. Also, on GPT images dm-verity data
integrity hash partitions are set up if the root hash for them is specified using the --root-hash=
option.

Single file system images (i.e. file systems without a surrounding partition table) can be opened
using dm-verity if the integrity data is passed using the --root-hash= and --verity-data= (and
optionally --root-hash-sig=) options.

Any other partitions, such as foreign partitions or swap partitions are not mounted. May not be
specified together with --directory=, --template=.

--oci-bundle=
Takes the path to an OCI runtime bundle to invoke, as specified in the OCI Runtime Specification[3].
In this case no .nspawn file is loaded, and the root directory and various settings are read from the
OCI runtime JSON data (but data passed on the command line takes precedence).

--read-only
Mount the container's root file system (and any other file systems container in the container image)
read-only. This has no effect on additional mounts made with --bind=, --tmpfs= and similar options.
This mode is implied if the container image file or directory is marked read-only itself. It is also
implied if --volatile= is used. In this case the container image on disk is strictly read-only, while
changes are permitted but kept non-persistently in memory only. For further details, see below.

--volatile, --volatile=MODE
Boots the container in volatile mode. When no mode parameter is passed or when mode is specified as
yes, full volatile mode is enabled. This means the root directory is mounted as a mostly unpopulated
"tmpfs" instance, and /usr/ from the OS tree is mounted into it in read-only mode (the system thus
starts up with read-only OS image, but pristine state and configuration, any changes are lost on
shutdown). When the mode parameter is specified as state, the OS tree is mounted read-only, but /var/
is mounted as a writable "tmpfs" instance into it (the system thus starts up with read-only OS
resources and configuration, but pristine state, and any changes to the latter are lost on shutdown).
When the mode parameter is specified as overlay the read-only root file system is combined with a
writable tmpfs instance through "overlayfs", so that it appears at it normally would, but any changes
are applied to the temporary file system only and lost when the container is terminated. When the
mode parameter is specified as no (the default), the whole OS tree is made available writable (unless
--read-only is specified, see above).

Note that if one of the volatile modes is chosen, its effect is limited to the root file system (or
/var/ in case of state), and any other mounts placed in the hierarchy are unaffected — regardless if
they are established automatically (e.g. the EFI system partition that might be mounted to /efi/ or
/boot/) or explicitly (e.g. through an additional command line option such as --bind=, see below).
This means, even if --volatile=overlay is used changes to /efi/ or /boot/ are prohibited in case such
a partition exists in the container image operated on, and even if --volatile=state is used the
hypothetical file /etc/foobar is potentially writable if --bind=/etc/foobar if used to mount it from
outside the read-only container /etc/ directory.

The --ephemeral option is closely related to this setting, and provides similar behaviour by making a
temporary, ephemeral copy of the whole OS image and executing that. For further details, see above.

The --tmpfs= and --overlay= options provide similar functionality, but for specific sub-directories
of the OS image only. For details, see below.

This option provides similar functionality for containers as the "systemd.volatile=" kernel command
line switch provides for host systems. See kernel-command-line(7) for details.

Note that setting this option to yes or state will only work correctly with operating systems in the
container that can boot up with only /usr/ mounted, and are able to automatically populate /var/ (and
/etc/ in case of "--volatile=yes"). Specifically, this means that operating systems that follow the
historic split of /bin/ and /lib/ (and related directories) from /usr/ (i.e. where the former are not
symlinks into the latter) are not supported by "--volatile=yes" as container payload. The overlay
option does not require any particular preparations in the OS, but do note that "overlayfs" behaviour
differs from regular file systems in a number of ways, and hence compatibility is limited.

--root-hash=
Takes a data integrity (dm-verity) root hash specified in hexadecimal. This option enables data
integrity checks using dm-verity, if the used image contains the appropriate integrity data (see
above). The specified hash must match the root hash of integrity data, and is usually at least 256
bits (and hence 64 formatted hexadecimal characters) long (in case of SHA256 for example). If this
option is not specified, but the image file carries the "user.verity.roothash" extended file
attribute (see xattr(7)), then the root hash is read from it, also as formatted hexadecimal
characters. If the extended file attribute is not found (or is not supported by the underlying file
system), but a file with the .roothash suffix is found next to the image file, bearing otherwise the
same name (except if the image has the .raw suffix, in which case the root hash file must not have it
in its name), the root hash is read from it and automatically used, also as formatted hexadecimal
characters.

Note that this configures the root hash for the root file system. Disk images may also contain
separate file systems for the /usr/ hierarchy, which may be Verity protected as well. The root hash
for this protection may be configured via the "user.verity.usrhash" extended file attribute or via a
.usrhash file adjacent to the disk image, following the same format and logic as for the root hash
for the root file system described here. Note that there's currently no switch to configure the root
hash for the /usr/ from the command line.

Also see the RootHash= option in systemd.exec(5).

--root-hash-sig=
Takes a PKCS7 signature of the --root-hash= option. The semantics are the same as for the
RootHashSignature= option, see systemd.exec(5).

--verity-data=
Takes the path to a data integrity (dm-verity) file. This option enables data integrity checks using
dm-verity, if a root-hash is passed and if the used image itself does not contains the integrity
data. The integrity data must be matched by the root hash. If this option is not specified, but a
file with the .verity suffix is found next to the image file, bearing otherwise the same name (except
if the image has the .raw suffix, in which case the verity data file must not have it in its name),
the verity data is read from it and automatically used.

--pivot-root=
Pivot the specified directory to / inside the container, and either unmount the container's old root,
or pivot it to another specified directory. Takes one of: a path argument — in which case the
specified path will be pivoted to / and the old root will be unmounted; or a colon-separated pair of
new root path and pivot destination for the old root. The new root path will be pivoted to /, and the
old / will be pivoted to the other directory. Both paths must be absolute, and are resolved in the
container's file system namespace.

This is for containers which have several bootable directories in them; for example, several
OSTree[4] deployments. It emulates the behavior of the boot loader and initial RAM disk which
normally select which directory to mount as the root and start the container's PID 1 in.

Execution Options
-a, --as-pid2
Invoke the shell or specified program as process ID (PID) 2 instead of PID 1 (init). By default, if
neither this option nor --boot is used, the selected program is run as the process with PID 1, a mode
only suitable for programs that are aware of the special semantics that the process with PID 1 has on
UNIX. For example, it needs to reap all processes reparented to it, and should implement sysvinit
compatible signal handling (specifically: it needs to reboot on SIGINT, reexecute on SIGTERM, reload
configuration on SIGHUP, and so on). With --as-pid2 a minimal stub init process is run as PID 1 and
the selected program is executed as PID 2 (and hence does not need to implement any special
semantics). The stub init process will reap processes as necessary and react appropriately to
signals. It is recommended to use this mode to invoke arbitrary commands in containers, unless they
have been modified to run correctly as PID 1. Or in other words: this switch should be used for
pretty much all commands, except when the command refers to an init or shell implementation, as these
are generally capable of running correctly as PID 1. This option may not be combined with --boot.

-b, --boot
Automatically search for an init program and invoke it as PID 1, instead of a shell or a user
supplied program. If this option is used, arguments specified on the command line are used as
arguments for the init program. This option may not be combined with --as-pid2.

The following table explains the different modes of invocation and relationship to --as-pid2 (see
above):

Table 1. Invocation Mode
┌──────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Switch                       │ Explanation                           │
├──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Neither --as-pid2 nor --boot │ The passed parameters are interpreted │
│ specified                    │ as the command line, which is         │
│                              │ executed as PID 1 in the container.   │
├──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────┤
│ --as-pid2 specified          │ The passed parameters are interpreted │
│                              │ as the command line, which is         │
│                              │ executed as PID 2 in the container. A │
│                              │ stub init process is run as PID 1.    │
├──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────┤
│ --boot specified             │ An init program is automatically      │
│                              │ searched for and run as PID 1 in the  │
│                              │ container. The passed parameters are  │
│                              │ used as invocation parameters for     │
│                              │ this process.                         │
└──────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────┘

Note that --boot is the default mode of operation if the systemd-nspawn@.service template unit file
is used.

--chdir=
Change to the specified working directory before invoking the process in the container. Expects an
absolute path in the container's file system namespace.

-E NAME=VALUE, --setenv=NAME=VALUE
Specifies an environment variable assignment to pass to the init process in the container, in the
format "NAME=VALUE". This may be used to override the default variables or to set additional
variables. This parameter may be used more than once.

-u, --user=
After transitioning into the container, change to the specified user defined in the container's user
database. Like all other systemd-nspawn features, this is not a security feature and provides
protection against accidental destructive operations only.

--kill-signal=
Specify the process signal to send to the container's PID 1 when nspawn itself receives SIGTERM, in
order to trigger an orderly shutdown of the container. Defaults to SIGRTMIN+3 if --boot is used (on
systemd-compatible init systems SIGRTMIN+3 triggers an orderly shutdown). If --boot is not used and
this option is not specified the container's processes are terminated abruptly via SIGKILL. For a
list of valid signals, see signal(7).

--notify-ready=
Configures support for notifications from the container's init process.  --notify-ready= takes a
boolean (no and yes). With option no systemd-nspawn notifies systemd with a "READY=1" message when
the init process is created. With option yes systemd-nspawn waits for the "READY=1" message from the
init process in the container before sending its own to systemd. For more details about notifications
see sd_notify(3).

System Identity Options
-M, --machine=
Sets the machine name for this container. This name may be used to identify this container during its
runtime (for example in tools like machinectl(1) and similar), and is used to initialize the
container's hostname (which the container can choose to override, however). If not specified, the
last component of the root directory path of the container is used, possibly suffixed with a random
identifier in case --ephemeral mode is selected. If the root directory selected is the host's root
directory the host's hostname is used as default instead.

--hostname=
Controls the hostname to set within the container, if different from the machine name. Expects a
valid hostname as argument. If this option is used, the kernel hostname of the container will be set
to this value, otherwise it will be initialized to the machine name as controlled by the --machine=
option described above. The machine name is used for various aspect of identification of the
container from the outside, the kernel hostname configurable with this option is useful for the
container to identify itself from the inside. It is usually a good idea to keep both forms of
identification synchronized, in order to avoid confusion. It is hence recommended to avoid usage of
this option, and use --machine= exclusively. Note that regardless whether the container's hostname is
initialized from the name set with --hostname= or the one set with --machine=, the container can
later override its kernel hostname freely on its own as well.

--uuid=
Set the specified UUID for the container. The init system will initialize /etc/machine-id from this
if this file is not set yet. Note that this option takes effect only if /etc/machine-id in the
container is unpopulated.

Property Options
-S, --slice=
Make the container part of the specified slice, instead of the default machine.slice. This applies
only if the machine is run in its own scope unit, i.e. if --keep-unit isn't used.

--property=
Set a unit property on the scope unit to register for the machine. This applies only if the machine
is run in its own scope unit, i.e. if --keep-unit isn't used. Takes unit property assignments in the
same format as systemctl set-property. This is useful to set memory limits and similar for container.

--register=
Controls whether the container is registered with systemd-machined(8). Takes a boolean argument,
which defaults to "yes". This option should be enabled when the container runs a full Operating
System (more specifically: a system and service manager as PID 1), and is useful to ensure that the
container is accessible via machinectl(1) and shown by tools such as ps(1). If the container does not
run a service manager, it is recommended to set this option to "no".

--keep-unit
Instead of creating a transient scope unit to run the container in, simply use the service or scope
unit systemd-nspawn has been invoked in. If --register=yes is set this unit is registered with
systemd-machined(8). This switch should be used if systemd-nspawn is invoked from within a service
unit, and the service unit's sole purpose is to run a single systemd-nspawn container. This option is
not available if run from a user session.

Note that passing --keep-unit disables the effect of --slice= and --property=. Use --keep-unit and
--register=no in combination to disable any kind of unit allocation or registration with
systemd-machined.

User Namespacing Options
--private-users=
Controls user namespacing. If enabled, the container will run with its own private set of UNIX user
and group ids (UIDs and GIDs). This involves mapping the private UIDs/GIDs used in the container
(starting with the container's root user 0 and up) to a range of UIDs/GIDs on the host that are not
used for other purposes (usually in the range beyond the host's UID/GID 65536). The parameter may be
specified as follows:

1. If one or two colon-separated numbers are specified, user namespacing is turned on. The first
parameter specifies the first host UID/GID to assign to the container, the second parameter
specifies the number of host UIDs/GIDs to assign to the container. If the second parameter is
omitted, 65536 UIDs/GIDs are assigned.

2. If the parameter is "yes", user namespacing is turned on. The UID/GID range to use is determined
automatically from the file ownership of the root directory of the container's directory tree. To
use this option, make sure to prepare the directory tree in advance, and ensure that all files
and directories in it are owned by UIDs/GIDs in the range you'd like to use. Also, make sure that
used file ACLs exclusively reference UIDs/GIDs in the appropriate range. In this mode, the number
of UIDs/GIDs assigned to the container is 65536, and the owner UID/GID of the root directory must
be a multiple of 65536.

3. If the parameter is "no", user namespacing is turned off. This is the default.

4. If the parameter is "identity", user namespacing is employed with an identity mapping for the
first 65536 UIDs/GIDs. This is mostly equivalent to --private-users=0:65536. While it does not
provide UID/GID isolation, since all host and container UIDs/GIDs are chosen identically it does
provide process capability isolation, and hence is often a good choice if proper user namespacing
with distinct UID maps is not appropriate.

5. The special value "pick" turns on user namespacing. In this case the UID/GID range is
automatically chosen. As first step, the file owner UID/GID of the root directory of the
container's directory tree is read, and it is checked that no other container is currently using
it. If this check is successful, the UID/GID range determined this way is used, similar to the
behavior if "yes" is specified. If the check is not successful (and thus the UID/GID range
indicated in the root directory's file owner is already used elsewhere) a new – currently unused
– UID/GID range of 65536 UIDs/GIDs is randomly chosen between the host UID/GIDs of 524288 and
1878982656, always starting at a multiple of 65536, and, if possible, consistently hashed from
the machine name. This setting implies --private-users-ownership=auto (see below), which possibly
has the effect that the files and directories in the container's directory tree will be owned by
the appropriate users of the range picked. Using this option makes user namespace behavior fully
automatic. Note that the first invocation of a previously unused container image might result in
picking a new UID/GID range for it, and thus in the (possibly expensive) file ownership
adjustment operation. However, subsequent invocations of the container will be cheap (unless of
course the picked UID/GID range is assigned to a different use by then).

It is recommended to assign at least 65536 UIDs/GIDs to each container, so that the usable UID/GID
range in the container covers 16 bit. For best security, do not assign overlapping UID/GID ranges to
multiple containers. It is hence a good idea to use the upper 16 bit of the host 32-bit UIDs/GIDs as
container identifier, while the lower 16 bit encode the container UID/GID used. This is in fact the
behavior enforced by the --private-users=pick option.

When user namespaces are used, the GID range assigned to each container is always chosen identical to
the UID range.

In most cases, using --private-users=pick is the recommended option as it enhances container security
massively and operates fully automatically in most cases.

Note that the picked UID/GID range is not written to /etc/passwd or /etc/group. In fact, the
allocation of the range is not stored persistently anywhere, except in the file ownership of the
files and directories of the container.

Note that when user namespacing is used file ownership on disk reflects this, and all of the
container's files and directories are owned by the container's effective user and group IDs. This
means that copying files from and to the container image requires correction of the numeric UID/GID
values, according to the UID/GID shift applied.

--private-users-ownership=
Controls how to adjust the container image's UIDs and GIDs to match the UID/GID range chosen with
--private-users=, see above. Takes one of "off" (to leave the image as is), "chown" (to recursively
chown() the container's directory tree as needed), "map" (in order to use transparent ID mapping
mounts) or "auto" for automatically using "map" where available and "chown" where not.

If "chown" is selected, all files and directories in the container's directory tree will be adjusted
so that they are owned by the appropriate UIDs/GIDs selected for the container (see above). This
operation is potentially expensive, as it involves iterating through the full directory tree of the
container. Besides actual file ownership, file ACLs are adjusted as well.

Typically "map" is the best choice, since it transparently maps UIDs/GIDs in memory as needed without
modifying the image, and without requiring an expensive recursive adjustment operation. However, it
is not available for all file systems, currently.

The --private-users-ownership=auto option is implied if --private-users=pick is used. This option has
no effect if user namespacing is not used.

-U
If the kernel supports the user namespaces feature, equivalent to --private-users=pick
--private-users-ownership=auto, otherwise equivalent to --private-users=no.

Note that -U is the default if the systemd-nspawn@.service template unit file is used.

Note: it is possible to undo the effect of --private-users-ownership=chown (or -U) on the file system
by redoing the operation with the first UID of 0:

systemd-nspawn ... --private-users=0 --private-users-ownership=chown

Networking Options
--private-network
Disconnect networking of the container from the host. This makes all network interfaces unavailable
in the container, with the exception of the loopback device and those specified with
--network-interface= and configured with --network-veth. If this option is specified, the
CAP_NET_ADMIN capability will be added to the set of capabilities the container retains. The latter
may be disabled by using --drop-capability=. If this option is not specified (or implied by one of
the options listed below), the container will have full access to the host network.

--network-interface=
Assign the specified network interface to the container. This will remove the specified interface
from the calling namespace and place it in the container. When the container terminates, it is moved
back to the calling namespace. Note that --network-interface= implies --private-network. This option
may be used more than once to add multiple network interfaces to the container.

Note that any network interface specified this way must already exist at the time the container is
started. If the container shall be started automatically at boot via a systemd-nspawn@.service unit
file instance, it might hence make sense to add a unit file drop-in to the service instance (e.g.
/etc/systemd/system/systemd-nspawn@foobar.service.d/50-network.conf) with contents like the
following:

[Unit]
Wants=sys-subsystem-net-devices-ens1.device
After=sys-subsystem-net-devices-ens1.device

This will make sure that activation of the container service will be delayed until the "ens1" network
interface has shown up. This is required since hardware probing is fully asynchronous, and network
interfaces might be discovered only later during the boot process, after the container would normally
be started without these explicit dependencies.

--network-macvlan=
Create a "macvlan" interface of the specified Ethernet network interface and add it to the container.
A "macvlan" interface is a virtual interface that adds a second MAC address to an existing physical
Ethernet link. The interface in the container will be named after the interface on the host, prefixed
with "mv-". Note that --network-macvlan= implies --private-network. This option may be used more than
once to add multiple network interfaces to the container.

As with --network-interface=, the underlying Ethernet network interface must already exist at the
time the container is started, and thus similar unit file drop-ins as described above might be
useful.

--network-ipvlan=
Create an "ipvlan" interface of the specified Ethernet network interface and add it to the container.
An "ipvlan" interface is a virtual interface, similar to a "macvlan" interface, which uses the same
MAC address as the underlying interface. The interface in the container will be named after the
interface on the host, prefixed with "iv-". Note that --network-ipvlan= implies --private-network.
This option may be used more than once to add multiple network interfaces to the container.

As with --network-interface=, the underlying Ethernet network interface must already exist at the
time the container is started, and thus similar unit file drop-ins as described above might be
useful.

-n, --network-veth
Create a virtual Ethernet link ("veth") between host and container. The host side of the Ethernet
link will be available as a network interface named after the container's name (as specified with
--machine=), prefixed with "ve-". The container side of the Ethernet link will be named "host0". The
--network-veth option implies --private-network.

Note that systemd-networkd.service(8) includes by default a network file
/lib/systemd/network/80-container-ve.network matching the host-side interfaces created this way,
which contains settings to enable automatic address provisioning on the created virtual link via
DHCP, as well as automatic IP routing onto the host's external network interfaces. It also contains
/lib/systemd/network/80-container-host0.network matching the container-side interface created this
way, containing settings to enable client side address assignment via DHCP. In case systemd-networkd
is running on both the host and inside the container, automatic IP communication from the container
to the host is thus available, with further connectivity to the external network.

Note that --network-veth is the default if the systemd-nspawn@.service template unit file is used.

Note that on Linux network interface names may have a length of 15 characters at maximum, while
container names may have a length up to 64 characters. As this option derives the host-side interface
name from the container name the name is possibly truncated. Thus, care needs to be taken to ensure
that interface names remain unique in this case, or even better container names are generally not
chosen longer than 12 characters, to avoid the truncation. If the name is truncated, systemd-nspawn
will automatically append a 4-digit hash value to the name to reduce the chance of collisions.
However, the hash algorithm is not collision-free. (See systemd.net-naming-scheme(7) for details on
older naming algorithms for this interface). Alternatively, the --network-veth-extra= option may be
used, which allows free configuration of the host-side interface name independently of the container
name — but might require a bit more additional configuration in case bridging in a fashion similar to
--network-bridge= is desired.

--network-veth-extra=
Adds an additional virtual Ethernet link between host and container. Takes a colon-separated pair of
host interface name and container interface name. The latter may be omitted in which case the
container and host sides will be assigned the same name. This switch is independent of
--network-veth, and — in contrast — may be used multiple times, and allows configuration of the
network interface names. Note that --network-bridge= has no effect on interfaces created with
--network-veth-extra=.

--network-bridge=
Adds the host side of the Ethernet link created with --network-veth to the specified Ethernet bridge
interface. Expects a valid network interface name of a bridge device as argument. Note that
--network-bridge= implies --network-veth. If this option is used, the host side of the Ethernet link
will use the "vb-" prefix instead of "ve-". Regardless of the used naming prefix the same network
interface name length limits imposed by Linux apply, along with the complications this creates (for
details see above).

As with --network-interface=, the underlying bridge network interface must already exist at the time
the container is started, and thus similar unit file drop-ins as described above might be useful.

--network-zone=
Creates a virtual Ethernet link ("veth") to the container and adds it to an automatically managed
Ethernet bridge interface. The bridge interface is named after the passed argument, prefixed with
"vz-". The bridge interface is automatically created when the first container configured for its name
is started, and is automatically removed when the last container configured for its name exits.
Hence, each bridge interface configured this way exists only as long as there's at least one
container referencing it running. This option is very similar to --network-bridge=, besides this
automatic creation/removal of the bridge device.

This setting makes it easy to place multiple related containers on a common, virtual Ethernet-based
broadcast domain, here called a "zone". Each container may only be part of one zone, but each zone
may contain any number of containers. Each zone is referenced by its name. Names may be chosen freely
(as long as they form valid network interface names when prefixed with "vz-"), and it is sufficient
to pass the same name to the --network-zone= switch of the various concurrently running containers to
join them in one zone.

Note that systemd-networkd.service(8) includes by default a network file
/lib/systemd/network/80-container-vz.network matching the bridge interfaces created this way, which
contains settings to enable automatic address provisioning on the created virtual network via DHCP,
as well as automatic IP routing onto the host's external network interfaces. Using --network-zone= is
hence in most cases fully automatic and sufficient to connect multiple local containers in a joined
broadcast domain to the host, with further connectivity to the external network.

--network-namespace-path=
Takes the path to a file representing a kernel network namespace that the container shall run in. The
specified path should refer to a (possibly bind-mounted) network namespace file, as exposed by the
kernel below /proc/$PID/ns/net. This makes the container enter the given network namespace. One of
the typical use cases is to give a network namespace under /run/netns created by ip-netns(8), for
example, --network-namespace-path=/run/netns/foo. Note that this option cannot be used together with
other network-related options, such as --private-network or --network-interface=.

-p, --port=
If private networking is enabled, maps an IP port on the host onto an IP port on the container. Takes
a protocol specifier (either "tcp" or "udp"), separated by a colon from a host port number in the
range 1 to 65535, separated by a colon from a container port number in the range from 1 to 65535. The
protocol specifier and its separating colon may be omitted, in which case "tcp" is assumed. The
container port number and its colon may be omitted, in which case the same port as the host port is
implied. This option is only supported if private networking is used, such as with --network-veth,
--network-zone= --network-bridge=.

Security Options
--capability=
List one or more additional capabilities to grant the container. Takes a comma-separated list of
capability names, see capabilities(7) for more information. Note that the following capabilities will
be granted in any way: CAP_AUDIT_CONTROL, CAP_AUDIT_WRITE, CAP_CHOWN, CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE,
CAP_DAC_READ_SEARCH, CAP_FOWNER, CAP_FSETID, CAP_IPC_OWNER, CAP_KILL, CAP_LEASE, CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLE,
CAP_MKNOD, CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE, CAP_NET_BROADCAST, CAP_NET_RAW, CAP_SETFCAP, CAP_SETGID,
CAP_SETPCAP, CAP_SETUID, CAP_SYS_ADMIN, CAP_SYS_BOOT, CAP_SYS_CHROOT, CAP_SYS_NICE, CAP_SYS_PTRACE,
CAP_SYS_RESOURCE, CAP_SYS_TTY_CONFIG. Also CAP_NET_ADMIN is retained if --private-network is
specified. If the special value "all" is passed, all capabilities are retained.

If the special value of "help" is passed, the program will print known capability names and exit.

This option sets the bounding set of capabilities which also limits the ambient capabilities as given
with the --ambient-capability=.

--drop-capability=
Specify one or more additional capabilities to drop for the container. This allows running the
container with fewer capabilities than the default (see above).

If the special value of "help" is passed, the program will print known capability names and exit.

This option sets the bounding set of capabilities which also limits the ambient capabilities as given
with the --ambient-capability=.

--ambient-capability=
Specify one or more additional capabilities to pass in the inheritable and ambient set to the program
started within the container. The value "all" is not supported for this setting.

All capabilities specified here must be in the set allowed with the --capability= and
--drop-capability= options. Otherwise, an error message will be shown.

This option cannot be combined with the boot mode of the container (as requested via --boot).

If the special value of "help" is passed, the program will print known capability names and exit.

--no-new-privileges=
Takes a boolean argument. Specifies the value of the PR_SET_NO_NEW_PRIVS flag for the container
payload. Defaults to off. When turned on the payload code of the container cannot acquire new
privileges, i.e. the "setuid" file bit as well as file system capabilities will not have an effect
anymore. See prctl(2) for details about this flag.

--system-call-filter=
Alter the system call filter applied to containers. Takes a space-separated list of system call names
or group names (the latter prefixed with "@", as listed by the syscall-filter command of systemd-
analyze(1)). Passed system calls will be permitted. The list may optionally be prefixed by "~", in
which case all listed system calls are prohibited. If this command line option is used multiple times
the configured lists are combined. If both a positive and a negative list (that is one system call
list without and one with the "~" prefix) are configured, the negative list takes precedence over the
positive list. Note that systemd-nspawn always implements a system call allow list (as opposed to a
deny list!), and this command line option hence adds or removes entries from the default allow list,
depending on the "~" prefix. Note that the applied system call filter is also altered implicitly if
additional capabilities are passed using the --capabilities=.

-Z, --selinux-context=
Sets the SELinux security context to be used to label processes in the container.

-L, --selinux-apifs-context=
Sets the SELinux security context to be used to label files in the virtual API file systems in the
container.

Resource Options
--rlimit=
Sets the specified POSIX resource limit for the container payload. Expects an assignment of the form
"LIMIT=SOFT:HARD" or "LIMIT=VALUE", where LIMIT should refer to a resource limit type, such as
RLIMIT_NOFILE or RLIMIT_NICE. The SOFT and HARD fields should refer to the numeric soft and hard
resource limit values. If the second form is used, VALUE may specify a value that is used both as
soft and hard limit. In place of a numeric value the special string "infinity" may be used to turn
off resource limiting for the specific type of resource. This command line option may be used
multiple times to control limits on multiple limit types. If used multiple times for the same limit
type, the last use wins. For details about resource limits see setrlimit(2). By default resource
limits for the container's init process (PID 1) are set to the same values the Linux kernel
originally passed to the host init system. Note that some resource limits are enforced on resources
counted per user, in particular RLIMIT_NPROC. This means that unless user namespacing is deployed
(i.e.  --private-users= is used, see above), any limits set will be applied to the resource usage of
the same user on all local containers as well as the host. This means particular care needs to be
taken with these limits as they might be triggered by possibly less trusted code. Example:
"--rlimit=RLIMIT_NOFILE=8192:16384".

--oom-score-adjust=
Changes the OOM ("Out Of Memory") score adjustment value for the container payload. This controls
/proc/self/oom_score_adj which influences the preference with which this container is terminated when
memory becomes scarce. For details see proc(5). Takes an integer in the range -1000...1000.

--cpu-affinity=
Controls the CPU affinity of the container payload. Takes a comma separated list of CPU numbers or
number ranges (the latter's start and end value separated by dashes). See sched_setaffinity(2) for
details.

--personality=
Control the architecture ("personality") reported by uname(2) in the container. Currently, only "x86"
and "x86-64" are supported. This is useful when running a 32-bit container on a 64-bit host. If this
setting is not used, the personality reported in the container is the same as the one reported on the
host.

Integration Options
--resolv-conf=
Configures how /etc/resolv.conf inside of the container shall be handled (i.e. DNS configuration
synchronization from host to container). Takes one of "off", "copy-host", "copy-static",
"copy-uplink", "copy-stub", "replace-host", "replace-static", "replace-uplink", "replace-stub",
"bind-host", "bind-static", "bind-uplink", "bind-stub", "delete" or "auto".

If set to "off" the /etc/resolv.conf file in the container is left as it is included in the image,
and neither modified nor bind mounted over.

If set to "copy-host", the /etc/resolv.conf file from the host is copied into the container, unless
the file exists already and is not a regular file (e.g. a symlink). Similar, if "replace-host" is
used the file is copied, replacing any existing inode, including symlinks. Similar, if "bind-host" is
used, the file is bind mounted from the host into the container.

If set to "copy-static", "replace-static" or "bind-static" the static resolv.conf file supplied with
systemd-resolved.service(8) (specifically: /usr/lib/systemd/resolv.conf) is copied or bind mounted
into the container.

If set to "copy-uplink", "replace-uplink" or "bind-uplink" the uplink resolv.conf file managed by
systemd-resolved.service (specifically: /run/systemd/resolve/resolv.conf) is copied or bind mounted
into the container.

If set to "copy