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Researchers from the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore (NUS Medicine) and Duke University have proposed a neuroscience framework explaining how different types of motivation fundamentally reshape what and how the brain remembers.

The work, published in the Annual Review of Psychology, reframes motivation not merely as "more effort" but as a set of distinct motivational moods that activate different systems in the brain, shaping memory outcomes in predictable ways.

The study sheds light on two motivational moods—an adaptation-driven "interrogative mood" supported by dopamine, which helps the brain form flexible, relational memories that integrate information; and a goal-driven "imperative mood" supported by noradrenaline, which sharpens a memory’s focus on relevant details.

These findings offer a scientific basis for tailoring educational environments, enhancing clinical therapies for memory or motivational disorders, and improving public-health communication.

How motivation shapes memory formation

While past studies have shown that motivation can enhance learning, the authors explain that not all motivation works the same way. Instead, different motivational states set up distinct neural contexts, which are patterns of coordinated brain activity, that determine what kind of memory is formed.

"Beyond studying whether motivation helps memory, we investigated how it shapes memory," said the study’s first author, Assistant Professor Poh Jia-Hou, Center for Sleep and Cognition, NUS Medicine.

"Our framework explains that curiosity, stress, deadlines, and rewards result in distinct learning outcomes. This is because each factor induces a different motivational ‘mood’ which in turn modulates how information is processed."

The neural context model explained

The review integrates findings across neurobiology, cognitive neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, and computational modeling, unifying research into the new "Neural Context" model of motivated memory. It explains the two moods of motivation as associated with the following:

1. The interrogative mood, dominated by the motivation to adapt, promotes observation, exploration, and uncertainty-driven learning. It is supported by sustained dopamine activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), engaging the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. This helps with relational and integrated memories, schema formation (mental frameworks that the brain builds through experiences), abstraction and generalization, and flexible learning over longer timescales.
2. Imperative mood, dominated by the motivation to act, appears when people perceive urgency such as danger, deadlines, or strong goals. It is supported by burst-like noradrenaline activity from the locus coeruleus (LC), engaging the amygdala and sensory cortices. This helps with high-salience, item-focused memories, rapid sensory processing, and immediate goal-directed behavior; but often at the cost of broader contextual learning.

Implications for education and therapy

Professor R. Alison Adcock, senior author of the study and Director at the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, said, "These neuromodulatory systems, dopamine and noradrenaline, act like switches that tune the entire brain for different kinds of learning.

"Understanding these switches gives us powerful new levers for designing more effective classrooms and therapies. We hope to help individuals identify these motivational moods and learn to match them to the challenges they face."

The framework shifts the field toward studying how neuromodulatory systems shape patterns of memory, not just whether motivation improves learning. It emphasizes the importance of VTA and LC engagement, as well as sustained and phasic modes of activity, in determining how we engage with information and process it to form memories.

The model could potentially inform new treatments for disorders involving impaired motivation or memory, such as depression, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and dementia and age-related cognitive decline. Additionally, this work offers new insights into how motivational context can influence behavioral and lifestyle changes.

Future research directions and applications

The researchers are pursuing several experimental directions. These include developing artificial intelligence-driven learning technologies that adapt to a student’s motivational state, and studying how aging affects neuromodulatory systems and the motivation-memory relationship.

Furthermore, they are investigating whether non-invasive neurofeedback can help regulate dopamine and noradrenaline systems to improve memory, and exploring how motivational states influence the balance between exploration and exploitation in decision-making.

"Our long-term goal is to empower people with the ability to tune their own brains for learning," added Asst Prof Poh. "By understanding how motivation shapes memory, people can learn to harness urgency to focus on learning and support efficient action, or engage their curiosity to prepare for flexibility in an unknown future."

More information

Jia-Hou Poh et al, Motivation as Neural Context for Adaptive Learning and Memory Formation, Annual Review of Psychology (2025). DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-032525-031744

Citation: Not all memories are created equal: How motivation shapes memory (2026, January 21) retrieved 21 January 2026 from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2026-01-memories-equal-memory.html

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