Posted on January 9, 2026 by Troels Henriksen

I have written about Futhark’s history before - both my from my own perspective as a PhD student, and more generally. But as is natural during time time of the year, one’s thoughts dwell on the past, and I was reminded of a programming language project (NOVA, not the new one) that arose around the same time as Futhark, with largely the same goals and approach, and I thought it might be interesting to write down my memories of how we looked at it at the time, and why we ultimately decided to make a new language, instead of building on other work.

While it is perhaps a stretch to say that Futhark arose in a crowded field, the early 2010s had a good number of projects trying to make functional programming languages for GPUs. One of the most prominent (and which is still being worked on) is Accelerate, which is embedded in Haskell, and arose out of a popular trend - Nikola is an even earlier example of a GPU language embedded in Haskell. Really, embedded languages were quite fashionable in general! Copperhead was the same idea applied to Python, and of course today there are tons of GPU languages embedded in Python. While embedded languages can be quite convenient, we found the constraints imposed by embedding to be somewhat of a distraction from the real research we wanted to do - compiler transformations - and so we were not interested in going in this direction.

Not all the GPU languages at the time were embedded - Harlan is a very interesting language that focused on maximising expressive power on GPUs, and used rather fancy region-based memory management to support rich data structures on GPUs. Harlan’s focus was not performance however, and its lack of restrictions probably makes it difficult to achieve performance parity with hand-written code, so it was also not a good fit for our ambitions. And of course, SAC was and remains around.

The NOVA programming language, which is described in the paper NOVA: A Functional Language for Data Parallelism from 2014, is surprisingly close in its design to what Futhark eventually became. NOVA is a standalone functional data-parallel language, with a vocabulary very similar to Futhark (map, scan, reduce, etc), polymorphism using Hindley-Milner-based, an optimising compiler, and even features that Futhark still does not have, such as recursive data types. NOVA’s Lisp-like syntax is unlike Futhark’s ML-based, but as Common Lisp was my favourite language when I first got into programming, this is actually a benefit from my perspective. NOVA is benchmarked against hand-written CUDA programs and the Thrust library, exactly as we did in the first Futhark papers. There is basically no difference between what NOVA tried to do (and largely achieved) and what Futhark did, but the NOVA paper was published a year before Futhark had its first embryonic GPU code generator. So why didn’t we just ditch what we were doing and jump what we were doing? At the time, we really didn’t care about the language as such, only compiler optimisations - NOVA was published before Futhark was even named. The answers are a bit murky, ten years later, but I will try to give an answer based on my memories and a reconstruction of what our thoughts might plausibly have been.

The main reason we did not build on NOVA, and this is perhaps the most important lesson, is because the source code is not publicly available. I have no doubt that if we had written to the authors, we would have been given access - but this is a significant psychological hurdle, especially, if it turns out that the code is not suitable for our needs. Perhaps it would turn out to be a an unusable proof-of-concept, or have other unacceptable flaws (such as being written in C++). If the code is publicly available without involving the authors, it is much easier to investigate suitability for one’s own needs, without risk of social awkwardness. This a major reason why I take great care to publish and document all code I write to substantiate scientific publications. I think a large part of Futhark’s relative success in its tiny niche (in that a nonzero number of people have used it and even contributed to it) is because it is straightforwardly available.

Beyond that, let us read the NOVA paper more critically, as we did when it came out. First, it was published as part of the ARRAY ’14 workshop. I am personally a big fan of workshops, and tend to enjoy them more than large and prestigious conferences, but they are particularly welcoming of unfinished work-in-progress. This opens the reasonable possibility that although NOVA certainly had the features claimed, they perhaps did not work universally - which is also not something the paper claims. In particular, features such as recursive data types are really tricky to implement properly on a GPU - consider that, the year after, the Harlan language was able to get a good publication out of memory management by itself. It is possible that NOVA managed to solve the problem, but considering the great amount of work this would have required, the technique would certainly have merited a mention in the paper. NOVA also mentions support for nested (irregular) arrays, and talks about flattening them, but does not talk about flattening the parallelism in any nontrivial way - which again is something that I know is hard to do, because we wrote a PLDI paper largely about that several years after. Finally, consider the benchmarks shown in figures 3-5 in the paper: they are things like Black-Scholes, word counting, n-body, and so on. Fine problems, and the performance reported is undoubtedly impressive, but none of them require any of the language features that are difficult to implement on a GPU.

My hunch, re-reading the paper over ten years later, is that NOVA was a solid design and likely implementation, based on the same ideas that inspired Futhark (so of course I’d like it). I think all of its features worked when compiling to CPU code, but that only a subset could be compiled for GPU execution. That is not a particularly damning indictment, as even Futhark cannot actually handle quite everything yet. One somewhat frustrating bit of my lack of memory is that I attended the ARRAY workshop in 2014, but I have no memory of speaking with the NOVA researchers present. I simply cannot believe that I would not have asked for clarification about its full capabilities, and, if the answer had been promising, perhaps used their developments more directly. However, what exactly happened is lost to the mists of time, perhaps because of the other events of that summer - immediately after attending ARRAY, I went to the Oregon Programming Languages Summer School, and then off to an internship at LLNL.

Ultimately, NOVA did not directly influence Futhark, and the basic idea of the Futhark research project was in place before NOVA was published. It did however confirm to us that a standalone functional data-parallel language targeting GPU execution was feasible and likely to work well. It would be interesting to one day talk to the developers and figure out what exactly its capabilities were, and why they did not continue their work, as NOVA did not go further than that single paper.