Previously, we, begrudgingly, parsed some syntax into a Concrete Syntax Tree (CST) . With that tarpit deftly dodged, we can proceed to our next pass desugaring. Desugaring removes syntax sugar and maps our CST onto our Abstract Syntax Tree (AST). Our CST leaves us with a lot of cruft, such as | or =. This stuff was important for telling head from tail in our initial source file, and we’ll want to have it around when we’re reporting diagnostics, but the rest of the compiler doesn’t really care about such mundane affairs. Desugaring helps us strip away all the syntax and focus in on what’s important, lightening the cognitive load for following compiler passes.

But… do we really gotta? It seems like a pain. Can’t the later passes just deal with the excess syntax? We’ve come to expect that’s the tee up for why we can’t do that, but actually you kinda just…can. In fact, that’s exactly what Swift does.

They parse the CST, and their “AST” is just the subset of fields on the CST that are semantically relevant. It’s a perfectly valid strategy. I might even recommend it. That is of course, if you didn’t write every following pass of the compiler already using an explicit AST already. But who would do that, haha. Don’t worry, we have a real reason to use a separate AST as well.

We find let expressions in our syntax, but they are nowhere to be found in our AST. Syntax sugar turns out to be a common motivator for splitting CST and AST. If you look at rust-analyzer, they employ a similar strategy to Swift. They expose a bunch of helpers on the CST for the semantically interesting stuff. Despite that, they still produce a separate tree called HIR .

Rust desugars away a lot of its surface syntax, as well. Accommodating this transformation requires producing a new tree. It’s not enough to provide methods for the semantically interesting stuff. We need to fundamentally change the structure of our tree.

As we change our tree, we need to remember where we came from. It’s important that we’re able to map our AST back onto our CST. This will matter not only for error reporting, but also for queries. If we want to go to definition, we’ll need to determine the AST node our cursor is pointing at and then use that to determine where it’s definition is.

Desugaring produce our new AST and a mapping from AST nodes to CST nodes. Desugaring, like parsing, is also going to be resilient. We produce a list of errors alongside our AST and mapping.

For the most part, desugaring is straightforward. We walk our CST, taking the interesting bits out as we go and stashing them in the new AST we’re constructing. Conveniently, our syntax nodes map directly onto our AST nodes. Almost as if we designed them that way.

Let expressions are an exception, requiring some more care. They can’t be mapped directly onto our AST. We have to represent them with a tree of nodes and map them back onto our CST.

Traipsing Through Our CST Link to heading

During parsing, we were concerned with building up our CST, giving little consideration to how we consume our CST. That changes in desugaring. We are now concerned not only with how we traverse our CST, but how we store our CST. Recall one of our outputs is a mapping between CST and AST. Producing such a mapping requires we have a way to reference a particular CST node.

Our CST is provided by rowan , and we happen to be in luck. rowan provides not only a CST, but a way to traverse it. Traversal is performed by SyntaxNode . A type we did not encounter at all during parsing.

We can construct a SyntaxNode from our parsed GreenNode, providing us with a suite of new methods. The most common method we’ll use is first_child_by_kind. first_child_by_kind takes a Fn(Syntax) -> bool and returns the first node that returns true for our function Our predicate allows us to pick nodes of a particular kind (SyntaxKind::LetBinder, Sytnax::Expr, etc.) out of our tree.

Notably, first_child_by_kind only returns a syntax node. It cannot return a token, aka a leaf node in our CST. This is not an oversight on rowans part but a conscious design decision. If we want to find tokens, we can use first_child_or_token_by_kind.

When wading through a SyntaxNode’s children we only care about the nodes. The tokens will be syntactic noise such as Whitespace or Equal, which are irrelevant to producing our AST. rowan knows this and lets us skip right to the action.

This is why we wrapped notable Identifier tokens in nodes during parsing. FunBinder and LetBinder always wrap a single Identifier (give or take some Whitespace) but let us find that identifier via first_child_by_kind.

Setting Up For Success Link to heading

Like our other passes, desugar is a set of recursive methods walking a tree. With all the trees we’re traversing, we’ll have covered a whole forest by the time we’re done compiling. Also like our other passes, we share state between those recursive methods in a Desugar struct:

struct Desugar {
node_id: u32,
root: GreenNode,
ast_to_cst: HashMap<NodeId, SyntaxNodeHandle>,
errors: HashMap<SyntaxNodePtr<Lang>, DesugarError>,
}

Desugar is where we’re on the hook to uniquely identify our Ast nodes. node_id tracks the next available ID as we construct AST nodes. Like VarSupply from lowering, we increment this counter every time we create a node.

root is the root node of our CST from parsing. The very same CST desugaring is in the middle of traversing. A GreenNode is cheap to clone, so we don’t need to worry about having two copies floating about.

ast_to_cst maps our Ast nodes back onto the CST nodes that spawned them. This mapping will be central to error reporting, taking errors on our AST nodes and turning them into spans in our source file. We might be surprised to see it stores something called a SyntaxNodeHandle, not SyntaxNode.

A SyntaxNode is a pointer under the hood. This is great for performance, but not great for long term storage. Instead of trying to figure out how to store a pointer safely, we store an index that will let us return to the position in our tree our SyntaxNode pointed at.

Note

As the name might imply, what we’re describing here is the handle pattern .

We can think of this as storing a (Vec<T>, usize) instead of a &T. We can see this if we pop open SyntaxNodeHandle:

struct SyntaxNodeHandle {
root: GreenNode,
ptr: SyntaxNodePtr<Lang>,
}

SyntaxNodePtr comes from rowan. Despite the name, a glance at its definition reveals an absence of pointers:

struct SyntaxNodePtr<L: Language> {
// This is Syntax for us
kind: L::Kind,
// This is the span in our source text
range: TextRange,
}

From the span and kind of our node, we can find it within root and produce a SyntaxNode whenever we need one. We work with SyntaxNode while traversing because it’s fast, but once we want to store a node we convert it to SyntaxNodeHandle. When it’s time to traverse again, we convert our handle back into a SyntaxNode and pick up where we left off.

error also needs to store a SyntaxNode to point at where errors occurred. We’re less concerned with restarting traversal for our errors, so it suffices to store a SyntaxNodePtr.

Taking the Icing Off the Cake Link to heading

With our state squared away, we move onto our entry point desugar:

fn desugar(root: GreenNode) -> DesugarOut {
todo!()
}

We take in a GreenNode from parsing, and produce a DesugarOut:

struct DesugarOut {
ast: Ast<String>,
ast_to_cst: HashMap<NodeId, SyntaxNodeHandle>,
errors: HashMap<SyntaxNodePtr<Lang>, DesugarError>,
}

DesugarOut holds the three things we produce from desugaring. Due to our resilience, we always produce all of our outputs in some shape. From there, our body is brief:

fn desugar(root: GreenNode) -> DesugarOut {
let mut desugar = Desugar::new(root.clone());
let ast = desugar.desugar_program(SyntaxNode::new_root(root));
DesugarOut {
ast,
ast_to_cst: desugar.ast_to_cst,
errors: desugar.errors,
}
}

We construct Desugar, desugar our program’s Ast, and then assemble our outputs. Hard to ask for something simpler than that.

From the Top With Programs Link to heading

Recall from parsing, our program is just an expression. We see that’s still the case for desugar_program:

fn desugar_program(&mut self, cst: SyntaxNode<Lang>) -> Ast<String> {
let Some(expr) = cst.first_child_by_kind(&|kind| kind == Syntax::Expr) else {
// Assume parser has emitted an error for the missing node and just return a Hole here.
return self.hole(&cst, DesugarError::MissingSyntax(Syntax::Expr));
};

self.desugar_expr(expr)
}

We find the first Expr node in our CST. There should only ever be at most one, so the first is always correct. Failing to find an expression, we assume our program is invalid and return a hole. hole constructs a Hole AST node and maps it to its CST node:

fn hole(&mut self, node: &SyntaxNode<Lang>, kind: DesugarError) -> Ast<String> {
let ptr = SyntaxNodePtr::new(node);
self.errors.insert(ptr, kind);

let id = self.next_id();
self.insert_node(id, ptr);
Ast::Hole(id, "_".to_string())
}

Hole is part of our resilience strategy, previously seen in type inference . Rather than failing at the first invalid AST, we treat it as a Hole and try to recover as much of our AST as possible. Whenever we create a hole we attach an error to let us know what went awry.

Expressive Desugaring Link to heading

When we find our Expr, we pass it along to desugar_expr:

fn desugar_expr(
&mut self,
expr: SyntaxNode<Lang>
) -> Ast<String> {
todo!()
}

Recall our expression syntax is any number of let bindings followed by an application:

• Expr

• Let

• …

• Let

• …

• App

• …

In a perfect world, we’d consume this layout and be on our merry way. Alas, we have to contend with the possibility that the expression we’re looking at is invalid. We maintain a list of bindings and walk the children SyntaxNodes of our expression:

let mut binds = vec![];
// The only tokens that appear in Lets are whitespace that we are happy to skip here.
for child in expr.children() {
match child.kind() {
Syntax::Let => match self.desugar_let(child.clone()) {
Ok((var, arg)) => binds.push((var, arg, child)),
Err(error) => {
let hole = self.hole(&child, error);
return self.build_locals(binds, hole);
}
},
_ => {
let body = self.desugar_app(child);
return self.build_locals(binds, body);
}
}
}

Our loop ends in one of three ways:

1. We encounter an error from desugar_let
2. We see a non Let child
3. We run out of children

Our first exit means we had an invalid let binding, and we treat the remainder of our expression as a hole. We still might have accrued some bindings that we’ll turn into a let expression using build_locals.

Our second case is our “happy path”. If we see a non Let syntax, we assume it’s an application, pass it to desugar_app, and return whatever comes back to build_locals. An application could be any of a parenthesized expresssion, function, integer, application, etc. We don’t have to check for all of those here, if we happen to pass invalid syntax to desugar_app it’ll give us back a hole.

Finally, our third case exits the loop. This happens when we only have Let children, our expression has no body, or we have no children to begin with. Either way we handle it the same, by creating a hole:

let node = &expr.last_child().unwrap_or(expr);
self.hole(node, DesugarError::ExprMissingBody)

Our loop relies on children only walking over syntax nodes. Let bindings have Whitespace tokens between them (although they don’t have to!), and these would trigger our wildcard case ending our loop early. But Whitespace is a token, so children skips over it allowing us to assume we’ll only see Let syntax until we reach our expression’s final application.

Desugaring Let Bindings Link to heading

desugar_let does not desugar a full let expression This is because our CST only encodes let bindings: let <var> = <expr>;. Recall from parsing, a Let syntax node has the shape:

• Let

• LetKw

• LetBinder

• …

• Equal

• Expr

• …

• Semicolon

Because of that we don’t produce an Ast out of desugar_let. We lack the syntax with which to do so. Instead, we produce a pair comprising an identifier and it’s definition, relying on desugar_expr to turn those into a full Ast. We’ll extract our pair from the children of our Let node:

fn desugar_let(
&mut self,
bind: SyntaxNode<Lang>
) -> Result<(String, Ast<String>), DesugarError> {
let mut children = bind.children();

let binder = children
.next()
.filter(|var| var.kind() == Syntax::LetBinder)
.and_then(|var| var.first_child_or_token_by_kind(&|kind| kind == Syntax::Identifier))
.ok_or(DesugarError::LetMissingBinding)?;

let ast = match children.next()
.filter(|expr| expr.kind() == Syntax::Expr) {
Some(expr) => self.desugar_expr(expr),
None => self.hole(&bind, DesugarError::LetMissingExpr),
};

Ok((binder.to_string(), ast))
}

We assume our let binding only has two nodes (and we don’t have to care how many tokens it has). The first is a LetBinder, which holds our identifier. We unwrap our LetBinder to reveal it’s underlying Identifier token and grab its text. If our binding is missing, we error immediately.

Next is the definition of our let binding, which should be an Expr. We pass it to desugar_expr and use whatever it gives us. Failing to find that, we produce a hole and let the user know they’re missing an expression. Next we move onto desugaring appl- You know what actually…

You get the gist Link to heading

We’ve got a taste for desugaring. I trust you can extrapolate from here. For each piece of syntax we:

1. Traverse to the interesting nodes in our CST
2. Extract their text
3. Put them in our AST

When we fail to do any of those steps, we replace the AST we’re constructing with a Hole, attempting to replace the smallest AST we can. We’d rather replace the definition of a let with a hole than the entire let. Whenever we create an AST node, we give it a unique ID and a pat on the head, map it back to our CST and send it on its way. If you want to see it in glorious high resolution (depending on your monitor) detail, check out the full code . Instead of rehashing the same concepts we’ve covered above, let’s move on to the next interesting bit: desugaring let expressions.

Removing our Syntax Sugar Link to heading

build_locals is, in a sense, where all the magic happens. Our other helpers turn one syntactic construct into one AST construct. Here, however, we turn our let expressions into multiple AST nodes. With the loss of our 1:1 mapping, we have to answer a question: How do we map multiple AST nodes back onto one CST node.

A let expression turns into a function nested within an application. Whenever we write let x = 1; incr x, we could write (|x| incr x) 1. We’ll represent let expressions as an Ast::Fun and Ast::App.

But, what’s the span of our Ast::Fun? Our tree transformation is destructive. We’ve lost some information.

There isn’t a contiguous span in our source that represents our function. If we encompass all the elements of our function, as in let ∣x = 1; incr x∣, we also include parts of our application. Our application faces a similar conundrum, but it’s easier for us to handwave it away by saying it spans our full let expression.

In lieu of picking the perfect span for our function, let’s take a step back and consider why we need a span for our function. Foremost, our span serves as a location for diagnostics. After that, our span serves to identify our AST node for any user interactions. For example, if we want to get the type of our let variable, we’ll use the span to figure out which function parameter to get the type of in the AST.

Our function doesn’t actually need a span for that many diagnostics in practice. If an error occurs in our function body, our function body is an expression that maps to its own independent span.

We don’t need a span for our entire function. If we can give a span to our function parameter, our function body will take care of itself. Our narrowed task is much simpler to satisfy: let ∣x∣ = 1; incr x. Just like that; We’ve assigned a span to our function parameter. And if we look at the implementation, we’ll see that’s exactly what we do:

fn build_locals(
&mut self,
binds: Vec<(String, Ast<String>, SyntaxNode<Lang>)>,
body: Ast<String>
) -> Ast<String> {
binds.into_iter().rfold(body, |body, (var, arg, child)| {
let app_id = self.next_id();
let fun_id = self.next_id();
if let Some(let_binder) =
child.first_child_by_kind(&|kind| kind == Syntax::LetBinder) {
self.insert_node(fun_id, SyntaxNodePtr::new(&let_binder));
}
self.insert_node(app_id, SyntaxNodePtr::new(&child));
Ast::app(app_id, Ast::fun(fun_id, var, body), arg)
})
}

We accomplish a secondary task whilst desugaring lets, nesting let bindings correctly. body is the body expression of our innermost let binding, which will be the last element of binds. We walk binds backwards, constructing new let expressions out of the previous until we reach our first bindings. The first binding is our outermost let expression, including all our other bindings within its body.

Let’s see let in action Link to heading

Let’s get a feel for desugaring by working through an example. We’ll start with the syntax:

let one = |s||z| s z;
let add = |m||n||s||z| m s (n s z);
add one one

All my church heads sound off in chat. This is a perfectly good way to do addition, if you ask me. I don’t even know why we’re planning to add more features. That syntax gets parsed into a CST, that we’ll only summarize:

• Program

• Expr

• Let

• LetBinder “one”

• Expr …

• Let

• LetBinder “add”

• Expr …

• App

• App

• Var “add”

• Var “one”

• Var “one”

From that CST, we desugar our Ast. We’ll omit the body of our let definitions for brevity. We just want to get a sense for how our let expressions transform:

use Ast::*;
App(
NodeId(25),
Fun(
NodeId(26),
"one",
App(
NodeId(23),
Fun(
NodeId(24),
"add",
App(
NodeId(22),
App(
NodeId(20),
Var(NodeId(18), "add"),
Var(NodeId(19), "one")),
Var(NodeId(21), "one")
)
),
Fun(NodeId(17), "m", Fun(NodeId(16), "n",
Fun(NodeId(15), "s", Fun(NodeId(14), "z", ...))))
)
),
Fun(NodeId(4), "s",
Fun(NodeId(3), "z", ...))
)

Phew, writing that out by hand really makes me appreciate all the work the computer does for us. Now, because let is syntax sugar, we could also reach the same Ast by writing:

(|one|
(|add| add one one)
(|m||n||s||z| m s (n s z))
) (|s||z| s z)

I’ll leave it to you to verify, but this turns into the same Ast. I know which syntax I’d rather write. But I think it’s insightful to see that we don’t need let expressions.

Note

This is only the case in our language because of choices we made around the type system. In Haskell, let bindings allow for different typings than function parameters, making this transformation invalid. We don’t have any special treatment of let expressions, so we can desugar them.

As always, you can find the full code for our desugar pass in the making a language repo . One thing is still bugging me about the desugar example. Our desugared Ast uses String for variables, but during type inference we use Var. We’re going to need one more pass before we pass our Ast to type inference: name resolution.