Abstract

Indonesian spices have long played a pivotal role in the nation’s culinary heritage and traditional medicine, while increasingly recognized for their potential as functional foods. This review highlights the dual significance of local spices, not only as cultural markers but also as sources of bioactive compounds with scientifically supported health benefits. By systematically examining ethnogastronomic practices and contemporary research, the paper bridges traditional uses with modern scientific validation. Representative bioactive compounds such as curcumin, gingerol, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, and myristicin are discussed in relation to their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and cardioprotective activities. Examples of Indonesian dishes incorporating these spices demonstrate how culinary traditions enhance both sensory qualities and potential health effects. Furthermore, nutritional contributions of these spices, including micronutrients and fiber, are summarized to strengthen the functional perspective. The discussion extends to challenges such as standardization of doses, preservation of traditional knowledge, and integration of ethnogastronomy with scientific research. Opportunities for further study include clinical validation, improved processing methods, and potential applications in global food and health industries. This review integrates ethnogastronomy, nutrition, and bioactive science to underscore the role of Indonesian spices in promoting health while preserving cultural identity. This review is novel in systematically integrating ethnogastronomic context, nutrient composition, and mechanistic biomedical evidence to propose a pragmatic research and policy framework that facilitates translation of traditional spice use into validated functional-food applications.

Introduction

Spices are among the most valuable agricultural commodities in Indonesia, shaping not only the nation’s culinary traditions but also its history of global trade [1]. From the Maluku islands, known as the “Spice Islands,” cloves and nutmeg were once central to maritime routes that influenced cultural exchange and economic development across Asia and Europe [2]. Today, spices remain central in Indonesian households, where they function as key ingredients in daily meals and as components of traditional medicine [3].

Beyond their culinary role, Indonesian spices contain diverse bioactive compounds that have attracted scientific attention for their potential in promoting human health. Curcumin from turmeric, gingerol from ginger, and eugenol from clove exemplify compounds with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cardioprotective properties [4]. These compounds, while rooted in ethnogastronomy, have been increasingly validated through in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. The intersection between traditional uses and modern science highlights the relevance of Indonesian spices in discussions on functional foods [5].

The integration of cultural and biomedical perspectives provides an opportunity to frame Indonesian spices as both heritage and innovation. Traditional dishes such as rendang, soto, and wedang jahe not only preserve identity but also deliver compounds with measurable health benefits [6]. This dual role underscores the value of examining spices within both cultural narratives and nutritional science.

Previous studies have separately addressed the cultural significance or biomedical properties of Indonesian spices [7]. However, few reviews have systematically combined these perspectives to demonstrate how ethnogastronomy, nutrition, and functional-food science intersect [8]. This paper therefore aims to bridge this gap by synthesizing ethnocultural practices, nutritional composition, and biomedical evidence on Indonesian local spices. By doing so, it highlights the novelty of approaching Indonesian spices not merely as culinary or medicinal items, but as integrative tools in health promotion, gastronomy, and sustainable development.

Cultural and ethnic significance of Indonesian spices and their economic relevance

Indonesian spices play a central role in shaping local identities, rituals, and daily practices. In Javanese and Balinese traditions, spices such as turmeric, ginger, and galangal are integral to ceremonial dishes that symbolize prosperity, protection, and harmony [9]. Culinary expressions such as tumpeng and soto demonstrate how spices provide both flavor and cultural meaning, reinforcing community bonds through shared meals. Beyond food, spices are also embedded in traditional medicine, where preparations like jamu continue to serve as both preventive and therapeutic remedies [10]. These cultural practices illustrate how spices function not merely as ingredients but as carriers of symbolic and social value.

The cultural embeddedness of spices also extends into gastronomy, where their sensory attributes influence color, aroma, and texture in iconic dishes. For example, turmeric imparts a yellow hue associated with festivity in opor ayam and soto kuning, while cloves and nutmeg contribute warmth and depth in kolak and wedang uwuh [8]. Such sensory dimensions reinforce the cultural identity of regional cuisines, connecting generations and preserving culinary heritage. In addition, dishes such as rendang from West Sumatra highlight the fusion of spices, coconut milk, and meat, creating a gastronomic representation of resilience and identity that has been globally recognized [11]. This multidimensional relationship between culture, health, economy, and food security is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Source: Author’s own illustration

Interlinkage of cultural, medicinal, and economic roles of Indonesian spices. This diagram highlights the multidimensional roles of local spices in Indonesian society. Beyond their culinary function, spices such as turmeric, clove, and cinnamon contribute to ritual practices, health maintenance, traditional identity, and local economies. Collectively, these roles enhance food security and reflect the interwoven relationship between biodiversity, culture, and nutrition.

While deeply cultural, the use of spices also has significant economic implications. Indonesia remains one of the largest global producers of nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, and pepper, commodities that historically shaped international trade and continue to contribute to national income today [12]. Local economies in spice-producing regions rely heavily on smallholder farmers, for whom cultivation and processing are essential livelihoods [9]. This demonstrates how cultural heritage and economic value are intertwined, as traditional knowledge sustains practices that feed into broader value chains.

The dual role of Indonesian spices as cultural symbols and economic commodities highlights their importance for ethnogastronomy and sustainable development [13]. The cultural and economic functions of Indonesian spices are closely interconnected, reinforcing community identity while sustaining local livelihoods and value-chain activities [14]. Therefore, the economic role of Indonesian spices is inseparable from their cultural significance. This duality not only sustains local traditions but also contributes to livelihoods and trade [9]. These aspects are examined further in the Challenges and Research Gaps section and revisited in the Conclusion with regard to sustainable development. The key cultural, culinary, and economic roles of Indonesian spices are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 highlights the multifaceted roles of local spices in Indonesian culture and cuisine, with references for further reading.

Classification of major Indonesian local spices used in traditional foods

The classification of Indonesian local spices commonly used in traditional foods reflects the nation’s vast botanical wealth and the deep-rooted integration of plant-derived ingredients into regional culinary systems. These spices are typically organized according to the specific plant parts employed, such as rhizomes, seeds, bark, flowers, and leaves, each offering distinct sensory profiles and functional roles in food preparation and preservation [1].

Rhizomatous spices constitute a foundational category, encompassing species such as turmeric (Curcuma longa), ginger (Zingiber officinale), galangal (Alpinia galanga), and lesser galangal (Kaempferia galanga). These ingredients are central to spice pastes like base genep in Bali and are extensively utilized in curries, soups, and traditional beverages [19]. With their earthy, warming, and pungent characteristics, these rhizomes serve both culinary and ethnomedicinal functions, often linked to digestive health, immune support, and anti-inflammatory effects.

Spices derived from seeds and bark also play pivotal roles in Indonesian gastronomy. Examples include nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), pepper (Piper nigrum), and cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii) [20]. Nutmeg and cinnamon are prized for their sweet and aromatic notes, frequently used in desserts, stews, and spiced beverages. In contrast, coriander and pepper lend citrusy sharpness and heat, enhancing the complexity of marinades, spice blends, and sauces [15, 21]. Beyond flavor enhancement, these spices possess antimicrobial properties, which are traditionally leveraged to prolong shelf life and improve food safety in Indonesia’s humid tropical environment.

The use of floral elements, especially flower buds such as clove (Syzygium aromaticum), adds another sensory dimension to Indonesian dishes. Clove, with its intense fragrance and warming character, is a key component in signature dishes such as rendang and saksang, as well as in spiced drinks and ceremonial confections [20]. The incorporation of aromatic flowers emphasizes the importance of olfactory richness in Indonesian cuisine, where fragrance is often as valued as taste.

Aromatic leaves and other plant parts are also integral to traditional recipes. Common examples include Indonesian bay leaf (Syzygium polyanthum), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), kaffir lime leaves (Citrus hystrix), and pandan leaves (Pandanus amaryllifolius) [1]. These ingredients contribute fresh, citrusy, or sweet notes and are essential in dishes like nasi uduk, soto, and opor ayam. Their widespread availability and ease of cultivation, often in home gardens or through forest foraging, highlight their role in supporting sustainable food systems and household food security [16].

In addition to these widely recognized spices, several region-specific ingredients enrich Indonesia’s spice repertoire. Andaliman (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium), a native spice of the Batak highlands, imparts a numbing, peppery-citrus profile to North Sumatran dishes, while candlenut (Aleurites moluccana), common in Javanese and Balinese cuisines, is used to create rich, velvety textures in sauces and curries [1, 19]. These lesser-known yet culturally significant spices underscore the regional specificity and adaptive nature of Indonesia’s culinary traditions.

Ethnobotanical studies indicate that women are often the primary stewards of local spice knowledge, preserving culinary techniques and plant uses through oral tradition and intergenerational learning [22]. The continued classification, documentation, and scientific validation of these spices are essential for conserving biodiversity, enhancing sustainable food practices, and safeguarding the nation’s gastronomic heritage. As Indonesia modernizes, such efforts remain crucial for maintaining the ecological and cultural foundations of its traditional food systems. A detailed classification of major Indonesian local spices, their plant parts, and food applications is provided in Table 2. The botanical grouping of Indonesian spices according to plant parts is summarized in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Source: Author’s own illustration

Botanical classification of commonly used Indonesian spices by plant part. Indonesian spices can be classified based on the anatomical part of the plant used: rhizome (e.g., turmeric, ginger), seed (e.g., nutmeg, candlenut), bark (e.g., cinnamon), flower bud (e.g., clove), and leaf (e.g., bay leaf, lemongrass). Each category represents a unique source of bioactive compounds, culinary flavor, and ethnomedicinal value in traditional foods.

Table 2 Classification of major Indonesian local spices, their plant parts, and food applications.

Bioactive compounds and health benefits

A clear distinction is necessary between dietary (culinary) exposure and therapeutic dosing used in experimental or clinical studies [32]. Culinary use of spices (e.g., a pinch of turmeric in soto or a cup of wedang jahe) delivers variable and comparatively low amounts of bioactives that primarily support preventive health over time; by contrast, many experimental and clinical studies employ standardized extracts at explicitly quantified, substantially higher doses to test therapeutic efficacy [3]. In this review, statements about health effects are therefore qualified according to context (culinary vs. experimental/clinical), and where possible the original study’s exposure format (dietary intake vs. concentrated extract) is indicated [33]. Accordingly, culinary intake should be interpreted as contributing to long-term preventive health, whereas the therapeutic outcomes reported in clinical and experimental studies depend on standardized, higher-dose formulations.

Curcumin, the principal curcuminoid in turmeric, suppresses NF-κB activation and reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby exerting pronounced anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects [34]. Most clinical trials use concentrated curcumin extracts at doses considerably higher than those present in common culinary use; thus, turmeric consumed in dishes such as soto and jamu contributes primarily to prevention and long-term health maintenance, whereas therapeutic effects require standardized, higher-dose formulations [35]. In addition to curcuminoids, turmeric supplies dietary fiber, iron, and manganese, nutrients that support digestive and metabolic health [23].

Gingerol and shogaol from ginger exhibit antidiabetic and cardioprotective properties through the modulation of insulin sensitivity and reduction of oxidative stress [36]. Their presence in beverages such as wedang jahe highlights how traditional consumption patterns align with preventive health practices [25]. Again, experimental doses are generally higher than culinary intake, underlining the preventive rather than curative role of these compounds in daily diets. Nutritionally, ginger also contains small amounts of vitamin C, magnesium, and potassium, which support immune defense and cardiovascular function [26].

Eugenol, the main constituent of clove, demonstrates antimicrobial and analgesic properties by inhibiting microbial growth and reducing inflammation [32]. Its traditional use in oral health remedies reflects these activities, while its incorporation into culinary items such as kolak enhances flavor and aroma alongside functional benefits [37]. Cloves are also an excellent source of vitamin K and manganese, nutrients essential for blood clotting and bone health [38].

Cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon improves vascular function and enhances insulin sensitivity, supporting its antidiabetic and cardioprotective roles. It is widely used in Indonesian sweets and beverages, where its distinctive flavor is linked to both cultural identity and potential metabolic benefits. Cinnamon also provides dietary fiber and calcium, which contribute to digestive regulation and skeletal health.

Myristicin from nutmeg exhibits antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, with potential neuroprotective effects at culinary doses [39]. However, excessive intake can lead to toxicity, making moderation critical when interpreting its role as a health-promoting compound in foods like wedang uwuh [40]. Nutmeg further contributes trace minerals such as copper and magnesium, which play roles in energy metabolism and nervous system function [41]. An overview of representative bioactive compounds and their associated health effects is presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Source: Author’s own illustration

Schematic overview of representative bioactive compounds from Indonesian spices and their associated health effects. Curcumin (turmeric), gingerol (ginger), eugenol (clove), cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon), and myristicin (nutmeg) are presented as examples. The schematic summarizes principal pathways (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, neuroprotective) and highlights where culinary use is likely preventive while concentrated extracts show therapeutic potential.

The diverse bioactives in Indonesian spices act through shared mechanisms of reducing oxidative stress, regulating inflammatory pathways, and enhancing metabolic functions [42]. Culinary use primarily supports preventive health, whereas concentrated doses investigated in research indicate therapeutic potential [9]. This duality underscores the importance of integrating ethnogastronomic traditions with modern biomedical evidence. Representative raw forms of major Indonesian spices discussed in this review are shown in Fig. 4. Key bioactive compounds, micronutrient profiles, and associated health effects of selected Indonesian spices are summarized Table 3.

Fig. 4

Source: Author’s own compilation

Original photographs of representative Indonesian spices discussed in this review: (A) Turmeric (Curcuma longa), (B) Ginger (Zingiber officinale), (C) Clove (Syzygium aromaticum), (D) Cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii), and (E) Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). These images illustrate the spices in their raw form and support ethnogastronomic descriptions in the text.

Scientific evidence linking traditional use and modern pharmacology

The traditional use of Indonesian spices in both culinary and medicinal contexts is increasingly corroborated by contemporary pharmacological research, illustrating a convergence between ethnobotanical heritage and modern scientific validation [45]. A wide array of commonly used spices, such as Cinnamomum burmanni (Indonesian cinnamon), Syzygium polyanthum (Indonesian bay leaf), Curcuma longa (turmeric), Zingiber officinale (ginger), and Syzygium aromaticum (clove) have been shown to contain potent bioactive constituents [10, 27]. These compounds exhibit diverse pharmacological effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activities, thus aligning with their longstanding therapeutic applications [12].

For example, Cinnamomum burmanni, widely employed in traditional medicine and cooking, contains high concentrations of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol, compounds validated for their antidiabetic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties through in vitro and in vivo studies [10]. Likewise, Syzygium polyanthum, an essential component of Indonesian cuisine, has been shown to exert antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, and antioxidative effects [27]. These effects are attributed to its rich phytochemical profile, including flavonoids, saponins, and alkaloids.

Traditional herbal beverages such as jamu, kunyit asam, and wedang jahe, each deeply embedded in Indonesian cultural identity, have also undergone modern scientific scrutiny [8]. These formulations often incorporate turmeric, ginger, and other native spices, which contribute to their documented antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. Recent studies have identified bioactive compounds such as curcumin, gingerol, and brazilin as principal contributors to these effects. Additionally, the adoption of modern processing technologies, such as ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment, has allowed for enhanced shelf life and broader market access, while preserving phytochemical efficacy [8].

Ethnobotanical investigations conducted in various Indonesian regions, including South Aceh, have systematically documented the use of spices such as Curcuma longa, Kaempferia galanga, and Syzygium aromaticum in treating diverse ailments [45]. Notably, more than 40% of this traditional knowledge is transmitted orally through familial and communal networks, underscoring the urgency for documentation and integration with modern pharmacological insights.

Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic validation has further strengthened the evidence base supporting traditional spice usage. For instance, extracts of Cinnamomum burmanni have demonstrated hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity in both animal models and cell-based studies, thus reinforcing its empirical application in managing metabolic disorders [10]. Similarly, Syzygium polyanthum extracts have shown antihypertensive and lipid-lowering effects in preclinical studies, supporting its role in traditional cardiovascular remedies [27]. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidative potentials of turmeric and ginger have also been confirmed through mechanistic studies, indicating their ability to regulate pro-inflammatory mediators and oxidative markers [12]. The extent of scientific validation supporting traditional Indonesian spices is summarized in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

Source: Author’s own illustration

Scientific validation status of selected traditional Indonesian spices. This diagram categorizes selected Indonesian traditional spices according to the extent of scientific validation supporting their health-related functions. Spices such as turmeric, ginger, and clove are classified under “Well-established evidence” due to the abundance of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies validating their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties. Spices like andaliman and torch ginger fall under “Emerging evidence,” where promising preclinical data exist but require further investigation. Others, including lesser-known indigenous spices, remain under “Limited or anecdotal evidence,” reflecting a significant research gap despite widespread traditional use. This stratification highlights the need to prioritize clinical research and integrative pharmacological studies to bridge traditional knowledge with modern scientific validation.

While these findings affirm the health potential of many Indonesian spices, there remains a significant research gap concerning underexplored species [1]. Current pharmacological investigations have largely concentrated on a limited number of well-known spices, leaving the vast ethnobotanical richness of Indonesia underutilized. Moreover, the absence of large-scale, randomized clinical trials and standardized extract formulations limits the translational application of these findings into public health or pharmaceutical domains [45].

Therefore, an integrated approach, combining ethnobotanical documentation, phytochemical profiling, mechanistic pharmacology, and clinical validation, is essential for harnessing the full potential of Indonesian spices [12]. This synergy not only supports their continued inclusion in traditional diets and healthcare practices but also highlights their promise as candidates for functional-food development and phytopharmaceutical innovation in modern healthcare systems. An overview of scientific studies linking traditional uses of Indonesian spices with pharmacological evidence is presented in Table 4.

Challenges and research gaps

Despite Indonesia’s rich ethnobotanical heritage and the considerable economic value of its spice sector, several critical challenges and research deficiencies continue to hinder the broader application of local spices in public health, nutrition, and global food systems. One of the foremost obstacles is the absence of standardized parameters related to spice quality, bioactive compound content, and dosage recommendations for culinary and medicinal applications [46]. Significant variability in agronomic practices, post-harvest treatment, and processing techniques contributes to inconsistencies in phytochemical composition, thereby impeding the reproducibility of therapeutic effects and complicating efforts to ensure consumer safety and efficacy in both domestic and international markets [47].

The lack of standardization also constrains the development of validated functional-food formulations and phytopharmaceuticals derived from Indonesian spices. Without rigorous quality control and dosage precision, the incorporation of these spices into evidence-based dietary interventions and clinical nutrition guidelines remains limited [46].

Another substantial gap lies in the insufficient number of human-based clinical trials investigating the health effects of indigenous spices, particularly within Southeast Asian populations [47]. The majority of existing studies are preclinical, involving in vitro assays and animal models, which, while foundational, cannot fully replicate human physiological complexity, dietary interactions, and long-term outcomes [46]. The paucity of large-scale, randomized, and placebo-controlled trials prevents definitive conclusions regarding the therapeutic efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and optimal dosage regimens of key spices [46]. This limitation is compounded by challenges in research funding, infrastructural inadequacies, and a lack of interdisciplinary collaborations across pharmacology, nutrition, ethnobotany, and public health.

Integrating traditional ethnobotanical knowledge with modern scientific paradigms remains an ongoing and multidimensional challenge [48]. Although local wisdom offers a wealth of empirical insight into the health-promoting potential of spices, much of this knowledge remains undocumented, fragmented, or at risk of extinction due to generational discontinuity and increasing urbanization [48]. Addressing this issue necessitates systematic ethnobotanical documentation, bioactivity validation, and the translation of cultural practices into scientifically credible frameworks. Initiatives such as community-based participatory research, digital ethnobotanical archives, and integrative educational programs are critical for the intergenerational transmission and preservation of indigenous knowledge systems [49].

From a market perspective, the development and international competitiveness of Indonesian spices face persistent volatility due to inconsistent production volumes, fluctuating global demand, and intense competition from other major spice-exporting nations [50]. Additional barriers include insufficient product innovation, limited adherence to international food safety regulations, and gaps in supply chain transparency and traceability. These constraints not only affect the economic resilience of smallholder spice farmers but also hinder access to high-value markets such as the European Union and North America [47].

Overcoming these multifaceted challenges calls for coordinated action among governmental agencies, academic institutions, and private stakeholders. Strategies should include the promotion of good agricultural practices (GAP), investment in post-harvest technology, the establishment of phytochemical reference standards, and the development of innovative, value-added spice products [47]. Additionally, the promotion of Indonesian spices through gast