The Payment Heterogeneity Index: An Integrated Unsupervised Framework for High-Volume Procurement Oversight and Decision Support (opens in new tab)

Public procurement is vulnerable to error, fraud and corruption, yet high transaction volumes overwhelm oversight. While research often focuses on tender-stage anomalies, post-award payments remain underexplored. Since labelled datasets are rare and existing methods such as Benford's Law face restrictive assumptions, there is a need for additional interpretable, unsupervised frameworks that augment oversight and simplify management. This paper...