Mesenchymal stem cell and exosome-based therapies for degenerative disc disease: from mechanisms to clinical translation (opens in new tab)

Degenerative disc disease (DDD) is a leading cause of chronic low back pain and disability worldwide, placing a significant burden on public health systems and economies. The pathogenesis of DDD is characterized by oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, dysregulated cell death, and impaired extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis, all of which contribute to the structural degradation and functional impairment of intervertebral discs. Current clinical treatments primarily offer palliative reli...