Air–liquid interface–centered oxygen engineering in human brain organoids: intact, sliced, and microfluidic extensions (opens in new tab)

Brain organoids have become essential in vitro models for investigating human brain development, function, and disease, including both unguided cerebral organoids and guided region-specific neural models. However, their utility is fundamentally constrained by oxygen and nutrient diffusion limits inherent to closed three-dimensional architectures. As organoids increase in size and complexity, restricted oxygen delivery induces metabolic stress, disrupts progenitor dynamics, impairs neuronal ma...