• Review article
• Open access
• Published: 27 October 2025

Journal of Ethnic Foods volume 12, Article number: 35 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Ethiopia is renowned for its remarkable diversity of spices and condiments, which play essential roles in cuisine, traditional medicine, and cultural rituals. Many of these plants are deeply embedded in local health systems, spiritual practices, and livelihoods, yet their sustainability is challenged by small-scale cultivation, inconsistent quality, and the erosion of indigenous knowledge. This review presents a systematic thematic synthesis of ethnobotanical literature including peer-reviewed articles, books, theses, reports, and surveys across major agro-ecological zones with taxonomic verification of species names. Species were selected based on endemicity or long-standing cultural significance, with documented culinary, medicinal, or ritual applications. The analysis highlights key spices such as Capsicum annuum L. (mitmita), Nigella sativa L. (tikur azmud), Coriandrum sativum L. (dimbilal), and Aframomum corrorima (A.Braun) P.C.M.Jansen (korarima), which are integral to Ethiopian culture and economy. These plants are widely used to treat respiratory, gastrointestinal, and dermatological conditions, while also holding symbolic value in ceremonies and rituals. Forest-derived spices such as korarima and long pepper show increasing market demand, while homegardens continue to support biodiversity and household income. Despite their cultural and economic significance, spice production remains constrained by agronomic challenges and low genetic diversity. Strengthening indigenous knowledge systems and integrating them with modern conservation and development strategies will be critical for safeguarding biodiversity, cultural heritage, and economic opportunities.

Introduction

Ethiopia, one of Africa’s most botanically diverse countries, hosts a remarkable array of ecosystems, cultures, and culinary traditions. Its diverse agro-ecological zones from arid lowlands to highlands support the growth of numerous plant species traditionally used as spices and condiments [1, 2]. These plant-based ingredients are not only central to Ethiopian cuisine but are also deeply embedded in cultural identity, health practices, and spiritual rituals [2]. Despite their significance, a comprehensive synthesis of their ethnobotanical uses remains limited [3]. The FAO defines spices as vegetable products used for flavoring, seasoning, and aroma [4]. Condiments, in contrast, may include spices, herbs, sauces, and other flavor-enhancing substances, often added to food after preparation [4, 5]. Ethiopian spices often serve both culinary and medicinal roles, reflecting their integrative role in everyday life.

Spices and condiments in Ethiopia transcend culinary function; they play vital roles in traditional medicine, rituals, and social customs [4]. Cultural dishes such as Doro wot, Shiro, and Kitfo rely on complex spice blends like Berbere, Mitmita, Awaze, and Mekelesha, which vary across regions and reflect Ethiopia’s rich cultural mosaic [5]. These blends often include indigenous and naturalized species such as Aframomum corrorima (Ethiopian cardamom), Thymus schimperi (tosign), Capsicum spp., Zingiber officinale (ginger), Piper capense (Ethiopian black pepper), and Lippia adoensis (koseret) [6, 7]. Their preparation and use are passed down orally, forming intricate systems of traditional knowledge that are increasingly under threat due to environmental degradation, globalization, and changing dietary patterns [8, 9].

Ethnobotanical research provides critical insights into the sociocultural, medicinal, and ecological value of these plant resources [10]. In Ethiopia, localized studies have documented the use of spices for managing gastrointestinal and respiratory ailments, as well as for their preservative and antimicrobial properties [11, 12]. However, existing literature remains fragmented, often focused on specific regions or communities, lacking a cohesive national perspective [12].

Ethiopia’s participation in ancient trade networks via the Red Sea and Indian Ocean underscores its long-standing relationship with spices not only as a consumer but also as a cultivator and trader [12,13,14]. Today, spices continue to contribute to local livelihoods and international exports [15]. Yet, rising global interest in Ethiopian food and herbal products has not been matched by academic research or policy support to ensure their sustainable use and conservation [9].

The biological and cultural heritage of Ethiopia’s spice plants faces multiple threats, including deforestation, land-use change, climate variability, and erosion of indigenous knowledge [6,7,8]. Many of the species used in spice mixtures are wild-harvested and under pressure, yet their conservation status is often not assessed. Furthermore, the decline in traditional knowledge due to generational shifts and limited integration into formal education exacerbates the issue [11].

Against this backdrop, a comprehensive review of Ethiopian spices and condiments is both timely and necessary. Such a synthesis can consolidate existing data, identify key species and under-documented taxa, and reveal gaps in research. It can also support biodiversity conservation, inform sustainable utilization, and create opportunities for economic development. Importantly, it bridges disciplines ethnobotany, food science, pharmacology, and anthropology to provide a holistic understanding of how spices shape and are shaped by Ethiopian life [2].

Globally, spices have influenced human history, trade, and culinary for millennia. While European explorers like Columbus and Vasco da Gama are often credited with expanding the spice trade, ancient civilizations in India, Egypt, and Ethiopia had already established rich traditions of spice use [16, 17]. Archaeological records show spice use as early as 2000 BC in India and 1500 BC in Egypt [18]. Documenting localized traditions such as Ethiopia’s, independent of the Eurocentric narrative, offers a more inclusive understanding of the global role of spices [4].

The dissemination of spices via extensive land and sea routes shaped culinary cultures across Asia, Africa, and Europe [19]. Arab intermediaries facilitated the spice trade from India, Southeast Asia, and Africa to the Mediterranean and beyond. Ethiopia’s location along these historic trade routes positioned it as both a recipient and contributor to this exchange [20]. Spices remain culturally and economically significant in Ethiopia today.

Ethiopian spices and condiments derived from roots, fruits, bark, seeds, and other plant parts are essential not only for flavor and aroma, but also for their health benefits and preservative qualities [4, 5].

Ethiopia’s underutilized herbs and spices present valuable opportunities for poverty alleviation, women’s empowerment, and climate resilience [6]. However, sociocultural, informational, and research barriers hinder this potential [7]. Traditional knowledge on the culinary, medicinal, and ritual uses of spices persists in local communities, yet remains under-documented.

To address these gaps, this review systematically compiles and analyzes ethnobotanical data on Ethiopian spices and condiments. It explores their cultural, medicinal, and ecological significance; outlines traditional processing techniques; assesses conservation challenges; and identifies opportunities for sustainable cultivation and commercialization. This work aims to support efforts toward preserving Ethiopia’s botanical heritage and leveraging its plant resources for future development.

Methods and materials

Study design

This study employs a systematic thematic ethnobotanical literature synthesis. The objective was to document and analyze the traditional knowledge systems and diverse applications of spices and condiments indigenous to, or widely utilized in, Ethiopia. Emphasis was placed on culinary, medicinal, and cultural contexts, while ensuring taxonomic accuracy and thematic organization of data.

Data collection methods

Data were collected using a multi-source approach that combined systematic literature analysis, ethnobotanical survey reports, and taxonomic verification. A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed journals (e.g., Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Economic Botany, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, Ethnic foods and Ethnomedicine), books, and monographs on Ethiopian flora and cultural practices was conducted. Sources from governmental and non-governmental organizations working on agriculture, biodiversity, and cultural heritage were also included, together with graduate theses and dissertations.

Electronic database searches (Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, JSTOR, ScienceDirect, and AGRIS) were performed using combinations of keywords such as “Ethiopian spices,” “traditional medicine Ethiopia,” “ethnobotany Ethiopia,” “indigenous knowledge spices,” and specific plant names (e.g., tenadam, koseret, korarima).

Existing ethnobotanical surveys from major agro-ecological regions (Oromia, Amhara, Tigray, Central Ethiopia, South Ethiopia and Southwest Ethiopia) were reviewed. These often included field interviews with local healers, elders, farmers, and herbalists, whose oral knowledge offered critical insights into plant use. Where possible, traditional knowledge claims were validated or cross-referenced against multiple independent ethnobotanical surveys, pharmacological studies, or official flora databases.

To ensure botanical accuracy, plant names were verified and harmonized using The Plant List, Kew’s Plants of the World Online, Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Tropicos, and the International Plant Names Index (IPNI). Synonyms were consolidated to avoid duplication.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The study selection process, summarized in the flow diagram (Fig. 1), began with 100 database records and 8 local sources (total 108). After removing duplicates, 92 records were screened by title/abstract, of which 35 were excluded. Fifty-seven articles underwent full-text review, and 25 were excluded due to lack of relevance or insufficient data. Ultimately, 32 studies met the eligibility criteria.

Fig. 1

Flow diagram illustrating the process of literature identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion in the systematic review

Inclusion criteria required that species were endemic to Ethiopia or held long-standing cultural integration in food or medicine. Only studies published in English or Amharic between 1980 and 2024 were considered. Eligible works documented clear ethnobotanical significance (culinary, medicinal, ritual, or symbolic). Excluded materials comprised ornamental/industrial plants, imported species without cultural assimilation, and studies lacking sufficient taxonomic or ethnographic detail.

Data analysis

Extracted data were systematically organized into thematic categories, including botanical information (family, genus, species, and local/common names), culinary roles (such as dishes, preparation methods, and preservation uses), medicinal applications (ailments treated, preparation techniques, and dosage forms), cultural significance (ceremonies, taboos, and symbolic practices), and economic and conservation aspects (market values, IUCN status, and local conservation notes where available). Data were cataloged using Microsoft Excel, and descriptive statistical analysis was performed with R software version 4.4.3.

Limitations of the methodology

This synthesis is subject to limitations. Reliance on published secondary sources introduces potential bias, and the predominance of English and Amharic literature may exclude knowledge documented in other Ethiopian languages. Much traditional knowledge remains orally transmitted and under-documented, creating risk of omission. The geographic distribution of available studies is uneven, with underrepresentation from northern, eastern, and central Ethiopia, limiting the comprehensiveness of the national perspective. Furthermore, species-specific conservation assessments were possible only for plants with available IUCN or national status records; for others, data gaps persist. These limitations are acknowledged, and conclusions are framed as a representative synthesis rather than a fully comprehensive national review.

Results and discussion

Ethiopian spices and condiments: an ethnobotanical overview

This review offers a comprehensive ethnobotanical examination of spices and condiments traditionally used in Ethiopia. It explores their taxonomic diversity, culinary significance particularly in the context of traditional spice use medicinal applications, phytochemical composition, and other cultural functions. Drawing from a wide array of scholarly sources, the review synthesizes current knowledge on the rich and multifaceted roles these plant species play in Ethiopian society.

Taxonomic diversity and distribution

Ethiopia is renowned for its exceptional floral biodiversity, home to an estimated 5,757 vascular plant species, of which approximately 9.4% (544 species) are endemic [21]. Ongoing botanical investigations, especially in underexplored regions, continue to reveal new species, further contributing to the country’s remarkable taxonomic wealth [21]. Globally recognized as a major center of crop genetic resources, Ethiopia’s botanical richness is closely linked to its varied agro-ecological zones, diverse agricultural practices, and complex sociocultural landscapes [22]. This broad ecological and climatic variability [21,22,23,24] provides ideal conditions for the cultivation of numerous spice-producing plant species.

The country is also considered a center of origin and domestication for several key spices, including *A. corrorima * (Ethiopian cardamom), Nigella sativa (black cumin), Trachyspermum ammi (Ethiopian caraway), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Thymus schimperi (thyme), Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek), and Lippia adoensis var. koseret (koseret) [24,25,26,27]. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has formally recognized many of these spices as uniquely Ethiopian in origin and composition, affirming their botanical and cultural importance [4]. The enduring legacy of spice use is vividly reflected in the country’s diverse culinary traditions, which vary considerably among Ethiopia’s numerous ethnic groups [28].

In total, this review documents 63 plant species used as spices and condiments across Ethiopia, representing 46 genera and 25 botanical families (Table 1, 2, Table S1). The Lamiaceae family emerges as the most dominant, contributing 14 species (22%) to the national spice flora. This is followed by Apiaceae with six species (9.5%) and Asteraceae with five species (8%). Both Solanaceae and Zingiberaceae are represented by four species each, while many other families contribute one or two species. Notably, Fabaceae and Poaceae also play significant roles in Ethiopia’s spice biodiversity [21].

These findings highlight the country’s impressive array of spice and condiment-producing plants, emphasizing their value not only for culinary purposes, but also for traditional medicine, cultural identity, and potential economic development. The wide range of taxa involved points to the deep ethnobotanical knowledge embedded in local communities and underscores Ethiopia’s significance as a reservoir of both biological and cultural diversity.

Taxonomic significance and utilized plant parts of Ethiopian spices and condiments

This review data revealed that the Lamiaceae family emerges as the most dominant, accounting for 14 species representing 22% of all documented taxa (Table 2, Table S1). This underlines the pivotal role of aromatic herbs from this family, including mints and thymes, in Ethiopia’s culinary and medicinal traditions. Following Lamiaceae, the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) and Asteraceae families contribute 6 (9.5%) and 5 (8%) species, respectively, featuring well-known plants such as parsley, carrots, and daisy-like species.

Interestingly, 12 of the plant families are each represented by only a single species, accounting for 1.6% per family. This pattern illustrates the extensive taxonomic breadth of Ethiopian spice and condiment use, demonstrating that numerous unique species from diverse botanical families contribute to the country’s culinary, medicinal, and cultural heritage. The percentage breakdown provided in the table allows for a clear comparison of each family’s relative contribution and underscores the importance of preserving traditional knowledge systems. Such preservation is particularly vital, given that many of these families have only a single representative species in Ethiopian ethnobotanical records, yet still hold significant cultural and utilitarian value.

Although Ethiopia possesses an abundant array of indigenous spice and condiment species, several “classical” spices such as Syzygium aromaticum (cloves), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), Piper longum (long pepper), and Curcuma longa (turmeric) were historically imported from India [11]. Nevertheless, Ethiopian cuisine has fully integrated these imports into traditional practices alongside its native flora.

Spices and condiments in Ethiopia are derived from a variety of plant parts. These include bark (Cinnamomum species), bulbs and rhizomes (Zingiber officinale, Curcuma longa, onion, garlic), floral buds (cloves, saffron), seeds (N. sativa, mustard, poppy, sesame, fenugreek, Ethiopian cardamom), leaves (parsley, thyme, basil, rosemary, marjoram, savory, sage, celery leaves), and fruits (Capsicum species, coriander, Trachyspermum ammi, cress, and peppercorns). As noted by Lulekal [29], fruits, seeds, leaves, rhizomes, and bulbs are the most commonly harvested parts for use in cooking, beverages, and spice preparation. These are utilized in various forms dried, ground, or fresh and serve multiple functions as pot herbs, flavor enhancers, coffee additives, and vegetables.

For instance, Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens are commonly used as fresh or dried vegetables, while the pungent rhizome of Zingiber officinale is highly valued in both culinary and medicinal contexts [30]. Moreover, in several Ethiopian cultural groups, fresh leaves of Thymus schimperi and Ruta chalepensis are traditionally infused into milk products, coffee, and herbal beverages to enhance aroma and taste [28].

Ethnobotanical studies have documented the wide-ranging uses of spices and condiments across Ethiopia’s diverse ecological and cultural landscapes [11, 19, 20, 26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. Valuable sources of information on these species include the Flora of Ethiopia volumes 1 through 7 [40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54], the Honeybee Flora of Ethiopia [55], and numerous reports by the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI) [22]. Despite the availability of these rich resources, a consolidated national overview of spice and condiment usage remains lacking. For example, ethnobotanical studies in two communities in southern Ethiopia documented as many as 33 spice species, pointing to the region’s rich cultural plant knowledge. However, such findings also highlight the need for expanded ethnobotanical surveys in underrepresented regions, especially in the northern, eastern, and central parts of the country, to provide a more complete and inclusive understanding of Ethiopia’s spice diversity.

Culinary uses of selected spice and condiment yielding taxa in Ethiopia

Plant-derived spices and condiments are widely used in Ethiopia to enhance the flavor of foods, traditional dishes, and beverages, both during cooking and at the time of consumption (Table 1). Ethiopian communities incorporate these spice products into a broad array of culinary preparations, including breads, butters, meats, soups, and vegetable-based dishes [24]. However, the specific culinary applications of these spices vary considerably among communities, and even within individual communities. These differences are likely influenced by sociocultural factors and disparities in traditional knowledge concerning the uses of spice-producing species.

Woldeyes [28] documented the diverse spice usage among the Basketo and Kafa communities, who flavor a range of foods such as coffee, tea, butter, cheese, cabbage, Wot (a spiced stew), Shiro (a chickpea-based purée),Qocho (a fermented product made from Enset), and roasted beef. Spices are also commonly used to enhance the taste of milk, cheese, water, herbal infusions, and local beverages like Qolo (roasted cereals). They are further employed to impart color and depth to breads and Berbere a quintessential Ethiopian spice blend typically containing Capsicum species. Despite being used in relatively small quantities, spices have a significant impact on the sensory properties of food, primarily due to their content of fixed and volatile oils [14, 56].

The culinary roles of major plant families and species, based on reviewed literature, are summarized below:

Lamiaceae is one of the most culturally and culinarily significant families in Ethiopia. It contributes numerous herbs and flavoring plants, such as Mentha spicata (spearmint), M. piperita (peppermint), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Thymus spp. (thymes), Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil), and Salvia officinalis (sage) [57]. Among these, Ocimum species are essential ingredients in traditional stew preparations and form a core component of Berbere spice blends (Table 2). Thymus species, especially T. schimperi, are highly fragrant and antioxidant-rich herbs used to flavor dairy products like yogurt, butter, and cheese. The entire plant is aromatic and used in culinary preparations such as Besso (roasted barley flour) [58]. Additionally, the leaves of T. serrulatus are dried, ground, and blended with other spices to produce the complex spice mixtures used in Berbere and Shiro. Thymus leaves are also used to prepare herbal infusions, either directly as tea or by boiling them in water [34, 39]. Rosmarinus officinalis leaves are commonly added to roasted meats, including beef, mutton, and goat, adding flavor and aroma (Table 2).

Verbenaceae: Lippia adoensis var. koseret is a domesticated, aromatic herb endemic to Ethiopia, especially cultivated in home gardens in the Gurage region (Fig. 2). Its fragrant leaves are integral to the preparation of spiced butter by the Gurage and Oromo communities. The distinctive flavor and aroma of Gurage-style Kitfo (raw or lightly cooked minced meat with spiced butter) are largely attributed to the volatile oils of L. adoensis [41].

Fig. 2

Some Ethiopian spices and condiments picture

Zingiberaceae is a key family for globally important spices. Prominent Ethiopian representatives include Curcuma longa (turmeric), Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom), Zingiber officinale (ginger), and *A. corrorima * (Ethiopian cardamom) [11, 57, 59]. Z. officinale is prized for its pungent taste and aromatic compounds, mainly phenolic constituents and essential oils [59]. In Ethiopia, it is used in various dishes and to prepare the popular ginger tea (Qeshir). Globally, ginger is incorporated into both savory and sweet preparations, such as curries, cakes, and ginger-based beverages [59]. A. corrorima holds a unique place in Ethiopian cuisine; it is used in hot pepper sa