The heart of Rust borrow-checking is this: when a borrow is taken, and until it expires, access to the borrowed place is restricted. For example you may not read from a place while it is mutably borrowed.

Over the recent months, lively discussions have been happening around teaching the borrow-checker to understand more things than just “shared borrow”/”mutable borrow”. We’re starting to have a few ideas floating around, so I thought I put them all down in a table so we can see how they interact. I’ll start with the tables and explain the new reference types after.

To clarify the vocabulary I’ll be using:

• A “place” is a memory location, represented by an expression like x, *x, x.field etc1;
• “Taking a borrow” is the action of evaluating &place, &mut place, &own place etc to a value;
• A “loan” happens when we take a borrow of a place. The loan remembers the place that was borrowed and the kind of reference used to borrow it. When we take that borrow, the resulting reference type gets a fresh lifetime; as long as that lifetime is present in the type of a value somewhere, the loan is considered “live”;
• While a loan is live, further operations on the borrowed place are restricted;
• After the loan expires, operations on the borrowed place may be restricted too.

Note: These tables are not enough to understand everything about these new references. E.g. after you write to a &uninit you can reborrow it as &own, and vice-versa; this is not reflected in the tables. Another example: dropping the contents of a place removes any pinning restriction placed on it.

Table 1: Given a reference, what actions are possible with it

How to read this table: the reference I have gives me the column, the action I want to do with it gives me the row (the reference types mean that the action is a reborrow with that type).

For example, if I have a &own T I can reborrow it into a &mut T but not a &pin own T. If I have a &mut T I may write a new value to it but not drop its contents.

“Move out” means “move the value out without putting a new one in”. “Drop” means “run the drop code in-place”.

| | & | &mut | &own | &pin | &pin mut | &pin own | &uninit | | | - | –– | –– | –– | –––– | –––– | —–– | | & | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | | &mut | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &own | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | | &pin mut | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | | &pin own | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | | &uninit | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | | Read | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | | Write | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | | Move out | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | Drop | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ |

Table 2: If a loan was taken and is live, what can I still do to the place

How to read this table: a borrow of place p was taken and is still live; the kind of borrow gives me the column. The operations I may still do on the place (without going through that borrow) give me the row.

For example, if a &-borrow was taken and is live, I may still read the place.

| | & | &mut | &own | &pin | &pin mut | &pin own | &uninit | | | - | –– | –– | –– | –––– | –––– | —–– | | & | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &mut | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &own | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin mut | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin own | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &uninit | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | Read | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | Write | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | Move out | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | Drop | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ |

Unsurprisingly, most of the time we can’t do anything else to the place, because the borrow is exclusive.

Table 3: If a loan was taken and expired, what can I now do to the place

How to read this table: a borrow of place p was taken and has expired; the kind of borrow gives me the column. The operations I may now do on the place give me the row.

For example, if a &-borrow was taken and expired, I may no longer read the place.

| | & | &mut | &own | &pin | &pin mut | &pin own | &uninit | | | - | –– | –– | –– | –––– | –––– | —–– | | & | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | | &mut | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &own | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin mut | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | | &pin own | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | | &uninit | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | | Read | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | | Write | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | | Move out | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | | Drop | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ |

&own and &uninit both have the property that when they expire the place is considered to have been uninitialized. So we the only actions available are those that work on uninitialized places: writing and &uninit borrows.

The other point to note are the pinning loans: after a pinning loan expires, non-pinning mutable loans can’t be taken of that same place until the value is dropped.

What’s with all these new reference types?

All of these are speculative ideas, but at this point they’ve been circulating a bunch so should be pretty robust.

The owning reference &own T

&own T2 (which has also been called &move T) is a reference that says “I have full ownership over this value, in particular I am responsible for dropping it”. It feels like Box except that we don’t control the allocation the value resides in. In particular, we can move the T out of a

&own
T

.

Like Box, &own T drops the contained value when it is dropped.

When I owning-borrow &own x a place, I have given up full ownership of the value, and thus must assume that the place is uninitialized when the borrow expires.

It makes for some interesting APIs:

impl<T> Vec<T> {
// Pop the last value and return a reference to it (instead of moving it out directly).
fn pop_own(&mut self) -> Option<&own T> { .. }
// Iterate over the contained values, emptying the Vec as we go.
fn drain_own(&mut self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &own T> { .. }
}

The uninitialized reference &uninit T

&uninit T3 (which has also been called &out T) is a reference to an allocated but not-yet-initialized location. Much like when we do let x;, the only thing one can do with that reference is write to it. Once written to, it can be reborrowed into everything we want.

// Typical usage is to initialize a value:
impl MyType {
fn init(&uninit self) -> &own Self {
*self = new_value();
&own *self
}
}
let x: MyType;
let ptr: &own MyType = MyType::init(&uninit x);
// `ptr` can be used much like a `Box` would. It cannot be returned from the
// current function though.

It has a nice synergy with &own T: we can get from &uninit T to &own T by writing a value into the reference, and get from &own T to &uninit T by moving the value out of the reference.

Both have the property that when they expire, the original place is considered uninitialized4.

The pinning references &pin T/&pin mut T/&pin own T

Pinning is a notoriously subtle notion, if you’re not familiar with it I recommand the std docs on the topic. If you are familiar with it you may instead enjoy this blog post of mine that shines an original light on the notion.

Pinning references are variants of the existing reference types that also add a “pinning requirement” to the borrowed place. This requirement forbids moving the value out or deallocating the place without running Drop on the value first. This applies even after the pinning borrow has expired.

&pin mut T5 is the most common of these, it exists in today’s Rust as Pin<&mut T> and is crucial to our async story. &pin T would be Pin<&T>; it’s less clear how useful it is but I can imagine usecases.

&pin own T finally would be the owning variant. This one has the tricky requirement that it must not be passed to mem::forget as that would break the drop invariant. This isn’t possible in today’s Rust, but there have been proposals over the years as such non-forgettable types are needed for other things.

One funky aspect of &pin own T is that I think it’s ok to reborrow a &own T into a &pin own T: since the only way for the borrow to expire entails dropping the pointed-to value, there’s no way to break the pin guarantee so it doesn’t matter how we got that reference.

You’ll notice I didn’t list &pin uninit T. That’s because pinning is a property of a value, and &pin uninit T doesn’t point to a value. To pin-initialize a value, one can just write the value to a &uninit T then reborrow &uninit T -> &own T -> &pin own T.

You can find more details in my blog post on the topic. ↩ 1.

It’s been proposed a number of times; my go-to writeup on the topic is this one by Daniel Henry-Mantilla. ↩ 1.

That’s also been proposed a few times. I present a rather tame take on it, proposals are typically more featureful. The one I’m most aware of is this one by the in-place-init working group. ↩ 1.

There are proposals that would allow in the code above to use the &own MyType to prove to the borrowck that x is now initialized, but we won’t go into that. ↩ 1.

While pinning has existed in Rust for a couple years now, there’s now a push to integrate it into the language properly, and this is where I take that syntax from. ↩