Centuries of storytelling, scholarship, and reinterpretation have shaped how we imagine the Vikings and their gods, but much of that image may rest on myth rather than history. Scholars are now uncovering how Christian writers, political movements, and even modern pop culture redefined the “pagan North” to reflect their own ideals. Credit: Shutterstock

Scholars reveal that much of what we think we know about Vikings and Norse mythology is based on later reinterpretations rather than original sources.

Scholars in the field of Scandinavian studies caution that much of what people believe about Vikings and Norse paganism cannot be confirmed through scientific evidence. “They are based essentially on reports written by Christian scholars in the High Middle Ages well over a century later, since, besides brief runic inscriptions, no written texts from the original period have been preserved,” says Scandinavian scholar Roland Scheel from the Cluster of Excellence “Religion and Politics” at the University of Münster announcing the international conference “Imagining Nordic Paganism” from 6 to 7 November.

“Many people now have a relatively clear image of the Viking period, defined today as lasting from the 8th to the 11th century, and of pre-Christian Nordic mythology, this image deriving from numerous Viking films, series, video games, and museums. This includes the stereotype of the brave explorer, strong warrior, and seafarer. But what we know about this period is not so clear-cut.”

He adds that many of the prevailing academic and cultural interpretations of Norse paganism, including those presented in exhibitions and media portrayals, tend to overlook an essential point: the surviving sources represent “memorialized history” rather than direct accounts from the time itself.

The Modern Image of the Viking

Scheel explains that the word “Viking” today generally carries a positive meaning. “Pre-Christian Scandinavian society is credited, for example, with a special warrior culture, an exceptionally good position for women compared to the Middle Ages, and freedom from religious constraints.”

Scholar of Scandinavian studies Roland Scheel. Credit: Institute for Scandinavian studies

The positive image of Scandinavian paganism continues to shape identities to this day. “One example are neo-pagan groups, a religious and cultural current based on pre-Christian paganism whose followers see themselves as living Scandinavian paganism – often in contrast to monotheistic religions such as Christianity.”

Scheel points out that modern portrayals of pre-Christian paganism often overlook its darker sides, including the violence and devastation caused by Viking raids. This largely favorable interpretation stands in sharp contrast to how other events from the Middle Ages, such as the Crusades, are remembered today, as those are typically associated with aggression and religious intolerance.

“Ideas about the Vikings can be seen in pop culture, advertising and even politically motivated projects. One example is the Council of Europe’s Viking Cultural Route, which includes numerous historical sites and presents the ‘Viking heritage’ as a unifying element of European identity.”

“Richard Wagner’s character Valkyrie is also a stereotype”

Scandinavian studies scholars Roland Scheel and Simon Hauke are investigating at the Cluster of Excellence how today’s image of the ‘pagan North’ originated in the Middle Ages, and how it has developed over time. They point out that ideas about Scandinavian paganism have been passed down over the centuries, being constantly reworked from different perspectives and motives in the process.

This ranges from literary works such as the 13th-century “Edda” by the Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson, which retells the sagas of gods and heroes, to Jacob Grimm, who drew upon medieval Scandinavian texts, and to Reich Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), who referred to the “Edda” in speeches to the Reichstag.

“What is true for all periods is that studying how people imagined Scandinavian paganism in their particular time and how they sought to convey this image to others – this speaks volumes about their goals and mindsets. Our research allows us to peek behind the scenes of our own knowledge – or of what we think we know.”

Paganism and Politics

According to Scheel, the image of the ‘pagan North’ has often been exploited for political purposes. “The clearest negative example is how the Volk movement and the National Socialists exploited Norse mythology, misusing medieval written sources to underpin their racial ideology.” While there are still links to right-wing extremism today, the overall reception is now much more heterogeneous and covers a very broad spectrum of interests and forms. The field of neo-pagan groups is also heterogeneous.

Scholar of Scandinavian studies Simon Hauke. Credit: Cluster of Excellence “Religion and Politics”/Richard Sliwka

Ideas about Norse mythology have also been taken up in art and literature. “One further example is Richard Wagner’s opera ‘The Ring of the Nibelung’,” explains Simon Hauke. “Many of the ideas we have today about Norse mythology come from this opera’s premiere, including the figure of the Valkyrie, whom Wagner clothed as a decidedly feminine warrior. Wagner’s image of the Valkyrie is often adopted today, for example, on album covers of metal bands and Yu-Gi-Oh! Cards.”

According to Hauke, though, this image is true to the actual source material to a limited extent only. “Valkyries assume very different roles in Old Norse sources. Besides selecting the fallen in battle and transporting them to Valhalla, and playing the role of lover to a human hero, they also serve as barmaids in the afterlife.

In the textual sources, Valkyries often intervene in human battles, but it is unclear what exactly their role was in the original mythology and whether they were seen as warriors – the only thing that is certain today is that this was just one of many facets of a character whom later interpretations reduced to her femininity and warriorhood.”

The “Paganizations” Project

Roland Scheel and Simon Hauke’s research project is entitled “Paganisations: Memorialised paganism as an element of Scandinavian and European identities.” The conference “Imagining Nordic Paganism: Cultural Memories and Scholarly Thought Since the Middle Ages” focuses on the historical reception of Scandinavian paganism.

“We cover a broad range of topics, such as the relationship between gender and paganism, the spatial dimension of its reception, and not least the identity-giving recourse to paganism in historiography and the history of Scandinavian studies. This reveals the great temporal depth of the reception of Scandinavian paganism from the first sources in the Middle Ages to research and literature today,” explains Scheel.

The conference will feature lectures by international researchers from Scandinavian studies and related disciplines, including scholar of Scandinavian studies Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir (Oslo), runologist Alessia Bauer (Paris), scholar of Scandinavian studies Jonas Wellendorf (Berkeley), and scholar of Islamic studies Philip Bockholt from the Cluster of Excellence.

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