Why you should trust us

We interviewed seven experts and read more than a dozen scientific studies, journal articles, reports, and advances to understand formula ingredients, nutrients, and other components. We looked at information from the FDA and CDC to learn how formula is regulated and tested in the US. Finally, we analyzed the nutrition and ingredients labels of some 50 formulas to understand the differences and similarities among them.

I’m a freelance science writer with a PhD in cell biology and have covered health topics for The Atlantic, CBS News, Undark, KFF Health News, and more. I have three kids, and I’ve experienced the difficulties that come with infant feeding. Also, I’m fascinated by nutrition science.

What to know about baby formula

All babies require either human milk (breast milk), baby formula, or a combination of the two during the first year of life.

**Four companies manufacture the vast majority of baby formula for sale in the US. **Those companies are Mead Johnson (Enfamil), Abbott Nutrition (Similac), and Perrigo (which makes generic formulas sold in many grocery and pharmacy chains and by other brands, including Earth’s Best and Bobbie, and also acquired Good Start). A few smaller manufacturers have more recently entered the market: ByHeart (made in the US), Baby’s Only (made in the US), Kendamil (made in the UK), Kabrita (made in the Netherlands), and Aussie Bubs (made in Australia).

All infant formula sold in the US and labeled for healthy babies is safe. It will support normal growth and development from birth through 12 months. The FDA tightly regulates and monitors baby formula and has strict requirements for its nutrients, ingredients, composition, and manufacturing processes.

Brand-name and store-name formulas are nearly identical. A 2017 article on infant feeding in the journal Pediatrics states this. Pediatricians Jenny Thomas and Anthony Porto both told us that parents should feel comfortable using store-brand or generic infant formulas because they contain all of the same FDA-required nutrients and ingredients as formulas made by Enfamil and Similac (which cost two to three times as much).

Much of what you’ll read on a formula container is just marketing. There are formulas marketed for constipation, spit-up, fussiness, and more. Yes, there are differences among formulas, but “in terms of ‘this formula is for colic, this formula is for constipation’—all formulas have to meet the needs of all infants in the US, from 0 to 12 months. So you can’t have a formula that’s just for a baby who is also breastfed, or a 2-month-old baby who is constipated,” baby feeding expert Bridget Young said.

Switching formulas is most often not a big deal. Thomas said that most babies will tolerate changing formula brands and formulations well: “Switching from formula to formula is not a hardship on the baby.” Thomas, Porto, and Young all agree that if your baby is feeding well and happily on a certain formula, there’s probably no reason to change it, though.

**But any given baby may have specific needs. **Some otherwise healthy babies without allergies do have trouble digesting certain formulas and can exhibit gassiness, spit-up, constipation, or fussiness. Porto said it can be hard to determine whether it’s the formula that might be causing trouble for your baby (and, if so, which component of the formula). If the formulas we recommend in this guide aren’t right for your baby, or you use the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), or you’re interested in what makes other formulas different, take a look at More baby formulas to consider.

How we picked


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Since 2017, we’ve considered every powdered non-prescription formula available in the US.

Here we focus on powdered formulas because they are the most commonly used (PDF) and most economical, and they come in the most varieties. The 2022 formula shortage led to more imported formulas entering the US market. For a 2023 update to this guide we added imported formulas that remain available beyond the temporary supply brought in to help alleviate the shortage. And in 2024 and 2025, we removed discontinued products, updated some of the store brands, and added a few new formulas.

Based on our extensive research and conversations with multiple experts, there were only a few criteria we used to whittle down our list of contenders for the best formulas:

Traditional and organic formulas should have lactose as the sole carbohydrate. Since lactose is the energy-providing carbohydrate naturally found in all mammals’ milk, and because formula seeks to mimic human milk as closely as possible, infant feeding experts told us it’s preferable to choose a formula that has lactose as the sole sugar. Most healthy babies don’t have issues digesting lactose, and there is little evidence that reduced lactose or lactose-free formulas reduce colic. For this reason, we didn’t consider any “sensitive” formulas that were lactose-free. (Most partially hydrolyzed formulas include another sweetener in addition to lactose, and all fully hydrolyzed formulas lack lactose.)

“Gentle” or “tender” formulas should contain only partially hydrolyzed proteins. If a pediatrician believes your baby would benefit from a “gentle” formula (which may be easier to digest), it should not contain “intact” proteins along with the partially hydrolyzed ones. (If the label lists milk in addition to hydrolyzed milk or hydrolyzed whey, then it contains both intact and partially hydrolyzed proteins.) This is because, according to Young (video), the presence of some intact proteins will negate any benefits the partially broken down proteins could offer. (Imagine that you’re lactose-intolerant and you order an almond-milk latte but still put whipped cream on top.)

Finally, we considered cost. Formulas can range from just under 70¢ to nearly $2 per ounce of powder or more; this translates to about 63¢ to $1.80 per 6-ounce bottle. We found that many less expensive formulas have most or all of the same extra nutrients as more expensive ones.

We looked only at cow- and goat-milk–based formulas. Pediatricians Anthony Porto and Jenny Thomas told us they recommend soy-based formulas only if the baby has a medical need for it, or if parents want their baby to follow a vegan diet; this is also the guidance from the American Academy of Pediatrics.

We did not look at certain formulas like HiPP and Holle that aren’t regulated by the FDA and aren’t sold in US stores.

We also did not consider formulas intended for babies who are premature or who have certain other medical conditions, including formulas whose proteins come in the form of amino acids (such as Elecare, Puramino, Neocate, or Alfamino).

We didn’t do any testing for this guide, because babies have minds of their own, and it would be impossible to control for all of the variables that might make a baby prefer one formula over another.

Our pick: Member’s Mark Infant Premium


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Top pick

Member’s Mark Infant Premium is produced by Perrigo. Its ingredients list is largely the same as that of our other top pick, Kirkland Signature ProCare, with protein from nonfat milk and added whey, and lactose as the sole carbohydrate (making this formula’s protein close to 60% whey and 40% casein). Member’s Mark Infant Premium contains both galactooligosaccharides and fructooligosaccharides as prebiotics, and DHA and ARA. It also uses palm oil in addition to other vegetable oils.


Member’s Mark Infant Premium formula uses lactose as its sole carbohydrate, has added whey, and includes both galactooligosaccharides and fructooligosaccharides as prebiotics, as well as DHA and ARA. It contains palm oil. Photo: Michael Murtaugh

At about 80¢ an ounce (if you’re a Sam’s Club member; if not, you’ll pay a 10% upcharge), this formula is about half the cost of brand-name formulas, like Enfamil NeuroPro Infant (which has a similar ingredients list).

Member’s Mark Infant is sold at Sam’s Club, and the exact same formula is also sold under other brands, including Up & Up Premium Infant at Target, Parent’s Choice Premium Infant at Walmart, and Mama Bear Premium Infant on Amazon. Though these versions are often more expensive than the Member’s Mark version, some of them are sold in smaller quantities, which could allow caregivers to try the formula before buying a full 48 ounces from Sam’s Club.

Our pick: Kirkland Signature ProCare Non-GMO Infant Formula


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Top pick

At about 69¢ per ounce (for a pack of two 42-ounce containers), Kirkland Signature ProCare Non-GMO Infant Formula is among the least expensive traditional formulas we found. Yet it is just as safe and nutritious as formulas that cost much more.

It uses lactose as the sole carbohydrate, and it has added whey protein, in addition to nonfat milk, to make the protein ratio more similar to that of human milk (close to 50% whey and 50% casein). It also includes the extra nutrients DHA and ARA, lutein, taurine, L-carnitine, nucleotides, and two prebiotics (fructooligosaccharides and 2’-FL). This formula uses safflower oil, rather than palm oil, which may be a benefit if you are concerned about constipation (though our experts said palm oil is unlikely to impact a baby’s stool).


Kirkland Signature ProCare formula uses lactose as its sole carbohydrate, has added whey, includes the extra nutrients DHA and ARA, lutein, taurine, L-carnitine, nucleotides, and two prebiotics (fructooligosaccharides and 2’-FL). And it does not contain palm oil. Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Kirkland Signature ProCare Non-GMO Infant Formula is a generic formula available only at Costco. The Costco representative we corresponded with said its policy is to not disclose the company that manufactures its formula, but Perrigo lists the Kirkland formula on its website. Kirkland Signature ProCare Non-GMO has a similar ingredients list to the brand-name Similac Advance, except ProCare also has 2’-FL and a human milk oligosaccharide. Similac Advance costs about 83¢ more per ounce.

Some reviewers have complained that the ProCare formula comes with an opaque blue scoop, which makes it harder to gauge the measurement.

Kirkland Signature ProCare comes in a larger quantity than Member’s Mark. This formula is available online only as packs of two 42-ounce containers, enough for about 68 8-ounce bottles. If you want to buy smaller quantities of formula at a time, you can purchase individual Kirkland formula 42-ounce containers in-store.

You must be a Costco member to buy this formula online.

Best formula to try in smaller quantities: Up & Up Advantage Premium Infant Formula


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Best for...

Though a bit more expensive than Kirkland Signature ProCare and Member’s Mark Infant Premium, Target’s Up & Up Advantage Premium Infant Formula is still one of the least expensive formulas we found, yet it contains many of the same beneficial ingredients as much more expensive formulas, and comes in smaller sizes than our top picks.


Up & Up Advantage Premium Infant formula uses lactose as the sole carbohydrate, has protein from nonfat milk and whey, and includes DHA and ARA, lutein, taurine, L-carnitine, nucleotides, and a prebiotics (2’-FL). It does not contain palm oil. Photo: Michael Murtaugh

It uses lactose as the sole carbohydrate, the protein is from nonfat milk and whey protein (making the protein in this formula 52% whey and 48% casein), and includes the extra nutrients DHA and ARA, lutein, taurine, L-carnitine, nucleotides, and a prebiotics (2’-FL). Like Kirkland’s formula, Up & Up Advantage Premium does not contain palm oil.

Like the ProCare and Member’s Mark formulas, this one is manufactured by Perrigo; it is also sold as Walmart Parent’s Choice Advantage Premium, Sam’s Club Member’s Mark Advantage Premium Baby Formula, CVS Health Advantage Premium, and Amazon Brand Mama Bear Advantage Premium, among others.

Up & Up Advantage Premium (and the equivalent generics) are available in a smaller, 23.2-ounce size, as well as in a 36-ounce size.

The best gentle formula: Bobbie Organic Gentle


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Best for...

“Gentle” or “tender” formulas use partially hydrolyzed milk proteins, which are partly broken down and may be easier for some babies to digest. If you or your child’s pediatrician thinks your baby might do well with a partially hydrolyzed formula, we suggest Bobbie Organic Gentle, which is also manufactured by Perrigo.

Bobbie Organic Gentle uses only partially hydrolyzed milk protein, and it contains no intact proteins, as some formulas labeled “gentle” or “tender” do. (If you’re choosing a partially hydrolyzed formula for your baby’s digestion, you should ensure that it doesn’t also include intact proteins, because those larger proteins would negate any benefits the broken-down proteins might have.)

At about $2 per ounce, it’s considerably more expensive than partially hydrolyzed formulas by Enfamil, Similac, and Good Start. However, it is the only one that contains lactose as the sole sugar and does not contain corn sugar. (Good Start GentlePro and Enfamil Reguline are the only other partially hydrolyzed formulas that contain some lactose and no intact proteins, but these also contain corn sugars.)


Bobbie Organic Gentle uses only partially hydrolyzed milk proteins. For some babies, these smaller proteins are easier to digest. Photo: Michael Murtaugh

This formula’s protein is 100% whey, with no casein. It also contains high levels of DHA—20 mg per 100 calories (the required amount in Europe)—as well as ARA, and L-carnitine.

The best hypoallergenic formula: Up & Up Hypoallergenic Infant Formula


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Best for...

Hypoallergenic formula contains proteins that are fully hydrolyzed, or broken down, to make them suitable for babies with certain diagnoses, such as cow’s-milk protein allergy. If your doctor says you need to use a hypoallergenic formula, we recommend Up & Up Hypoallergenic Infant Formula. It’s equivalent to Similac Alimentum or Enfamil Nutramigen, but it’s considerably less expensive.


Up & Up Hypoallergenic Infant formula uses corn-based sugar as its main carbohydrate and casein hydrolysate for its protein. It contains soy and palm oils. Photo: Michael Murtaugh

As with Alimentum or Nutramigen, its main carbohydrate is a corn-based sugar (corn-syrup solids), its protein is in the form of casein hydrolysate (a kind of hydrolyzed protein), and it contains soy oil. Unlike Similac Alimentum but like Nutramigen, it contains palm oil.

Like our other store-brand picks, it’s made by Perrigo, and it is also sold as Mama Bear Hypoallergenic Infant Formula, Walgreens Well Beginnings Hypoallergenic Infant Formula, and Parent’s Choice Hypoallergenic Infant Formula, among others.

The best organic formula: Kendamil Organic Infant Formula

Best for...

If you want to feed your baby a formula made from organic ingredients, consider Kendamil Organic Infant Formula.

Kendamil Organic is from a UK-based brand that has been in business for nearly 60 years and is EU Certified Organic (the USDA recognizes organic products made in the UK as USDA certified organic equivalent). It was brought to the US market during the formula shortage of 2022, and it is here to stay. This formula is one of the few made with organic whole milk and that have carbohydrates in the form of lactose, plus a prebiotic (galactooligosaccharides). It has no soy or palm oils, and it contains protein from organic whole milk, organic nonfat milk, and organic whey protein (making this formula’s protein 60% whey and 40% casein). Kendamil also has more DHA than many other brands (22 mg per 100 calories).

This organic formula is made from grass-fed whole cow’s milk. Whole-milk formula has only been available in the US since 2022, and it naturally contains the potentially beneficial ingredient milk fat globule membrane (MFGM).

Kendamil Organic is currently less expensive than one of our former picks for organic formula, Earth’s Best Organic Dairy Infant Formula. However, it’s not cheap. It’s around $1.42 per powdered ounce, so it’s more than double the price of some of the generic formulas we recommend. If you’d like an organic formula that may be a bit cheaper but doesn’t contain whole milk, try Baby’s Only Organic Complete Nutrition Infant Formula. And another former organic pick, Aussie Bubs 365 Day Grass Fed Infant Formula, currently does not meet USDA organic requirements, but the company says it’s working on this (Aussie Bubs Grass Fed does meet organic requirements in Australia, which is where it is manufactured).

The best goat milk formula: Aussie Bubs Goat Milk Infant Formula

Best for...

If you want a goat milk formula, we recommend the recently renamedAussie Bubs Goat Milk Infant Formula. Aussie Bubs formulas are manufactured in Australia, and they are Clean Label Project–certified, which means they are tested for chemicals of concern, including heavy metals, pesticide residues, and plasticizers. Aussie Bubs came to the US during the formula shortage of 2022, but a company spokesperson says the brand is here to stay.

While there aren’t any studies that suggest goat milk is better than other formulas as far as tolerability, there isn’t an abundance of research on it. Goat’s milk is sometimes considered more similar to human milk than cow’s milk, because, like human milk, it contains A2 beta-casein protein. Most cow’s milk contains predominantly A1 beta-casein. (Some cows produce A2 beta-casein, and there are A2 cow’s milk formulas available.) However, goat milk does contain some A1 beta-casein. And if your baby has a cow’s milk protein allergy, goat milk is not a good option because of the similar proteins in both kinds of milk.

Because this formula contains full cream goat milk, it also contains natural milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), which may be beneficial. And this formula contains less DHA than some cow’s milk formulas, at 11.1 mg per 100 calories.

The carbohydrates are primarily in the form of lactose. It has a prebiotic (galactooligosaccharides), it contains palm oil but no soy oil, and the protein is from whole goat milk and whey from goat’s milk (making the whey-to-casein ratio 60 to 40).

Goat milk formulas are expensive, and this one is no exception. You may find Kendamil Goat Infant Formula at a lower price at some retailers—Kendamil Goat is similar to Aussie Bubs Goat in that it also contains whole goat milk, but Kendamil Goat does not contain palm oil.

What’s in baby formula?


Photo: Michael Murtaugh

Baby formula available in the US is based on either cow’s milk, goat’s milk, or soy.

Carbohydrates and fats

Lactose is the carbohydrate occurring naturally in all mammalian milk, and it is the most abundant component of human milk. Some formulas marketed as “sensitive” have reduced lactose or are lactose-free and instead use corn syrup, sucrose, or other sugars. A Pediatrics in Review article states that “primary lactose intolerance is rare in children,” and most healthy babies are able to tolerate lactose, whether from cow’s milk, goat’s milk, or human milk. Pediatrician Anthony Porto said that when a baby is having issues digesting a formula, it’s usually due to the protein and not the carbohydrate.

Each formula brand uses its own standard blend of fats in all of its formulas. Fat is the second-most-abundant component of human milk, after carbohydrates. But most US-made formulas use plant-based fats, the most common being coconut, soy, sunflower, safflower, or palm oil. Young says for some babies, palm oil might contribute to constipation, but “most infants are able to pass stool while consuming palm oil just fine.” Porto said if a formula-fed baby has hard stools, palm oil wouldn’t be the first thing he would consider as a culprit. He would first make sure that the baby was hydrated, and then maybe recommend a formula with hydrolyzed proteins, since some babies have difficulty digesting intact milk proteins. However, if you want a formula that doesn’t use palm oil—some people may also want to avoid it for environmental reasons—Kirkland Signature ProCare, all Similac formulas, [Bobbie](https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/out/link/43994/170132/4/162825/?merchant=Bobb