Abstract
Reproduction is hypothesized to constrain lifespan1,2 and contribute to sex differences in ageing3,[4](#ref-CR4 “Regan, J. C. & Partridge, L. Gender and longevity: why do men die earlier than women? Comparative and experimental evidence. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 27,…
Abstract
Reproduction is hypothesized to constrain lifespan1,2 and contribute to sex differences in ageing3,4,5. Various sterilization and contraception methods inhibit reproduction, but predictions differ for how these influence survival, depending on sex5, how sex hormones are affected4 and species life history6. Here, using data from mammalian species housed in zoos and aquariums worldwide, we show that ongoing hormonal contraception and permanent surgical sterilization are associated with increased life expectancy. These effects occur in both males and females, although the sexes are differently protected from specific causes of death. Evidence of improved survival in males is also restricted to castration, with stronger effects occurring after pre-pubertal surgery. Complementary meta-analyses of published data reveal improved survival with sterilization across vertebrates and increased healthspan in gonadectomized rodents. Improved survival occurs in laboratory and wild environments, and with female sterilization approaches that either remove the ovaries or leave them intact. Reported increases in survival in castrated men7,8,9 resemble the effects in other species, whereas survival of women is slightly decreased after permanent surgical sterilization. Thus the hormonal drive to reproduce constrains adult survival across vertebrates, regardless of the environment in which an animal resides.
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Data availability
All data needed to reproduce the conclusions are available in the supplementary materials are publicly available at GitHub (https://github.com/itchyshin/lifespan_contraception), and are archived at Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17333443)25; the extracted data from primary sources used in the meta-analyses are also included with these. Raw data used for survival analysis to estimate life expectancies and ageing rates (Species360 data use approval no. 98486) for analysis of zoo-housed species cannot be publicly shared, as Species360 is the custodian (not the owner) of their members’ data. However, the individual survival curves for each species and contraception comparison can be found in Supplementary Figs. 1–4. Raw data are accessible from Species360 through research request applications (form available at https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1znoy62VEkDlhAp_0RfEvF7Zsx03g4W5AlppJHqo3_WQ/viewform?edit_requested=true&pli=1). Source data are provided with this paper.
Code availability
All code need to reproduce the conclusions is available in the supplementary materials, is publicly available at GitHub (https://github.com/itchyshin/lifespan_contraception), and is also archived at Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17333443)25.
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